THE AGORA OF ATHENS VS. THE ROMAN FORUM

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"The Greek agora establishes a formal typology, the Roman Forum defines the symbolism of the square as a center of an architecture and a society essentially urban. While the Greek agora contributed to giving the citizen self-consciousness, the Roman Forum made him aware of the state. "

Juan Carlos Pérgolis in his book "The Plaza. The center of the City"

It is inevitable to establish a parallel between the agora , the public space developed by the Athenians, and the Roman Forum. In fact, it is possible that the Roman space received influences from its Greek equivalent, a theory reinforced by the fact that in Etruscan cities (that preceded the Romans) no traces of a similar public space have been found. After all, the Agora was, as the forum, the most important public space in the city, where people would gather to discuss important aspects of their community.

Aerial view of Roman Forum

In terms of their relationship with the landscape, it is possible to establish similarities between the Athenian agora and the Republican forum. Both areas were located on flat land near or surrounded by hills (the forum was built on a drained swamp), and the way buildings are crammed into the original forum around the Capitoline Hill evoke the urban arrangement of structures around the the Aeropagus hill in the early agora. It should be noted, however, the imposing presence of the Acropolis, a visual and symbolic landmark -with no equivalent in Rome- that influenced the layout of the circulation and the use of public space in Athens.

Drawing of the Agora with the Acropolis in the background

In later stages the Imperial Forums became more defined, geometric, and enclosed, forming a series of separate spaces. This geometric rationality is also observable in forums of Roman cities such as Gerash and Caesarea, or Romanized cities, like Petra. I wonder if the construction of Odeion of Agrippa in the center of the agora would have been an attempt by the Empire to define the urban space that would appear too "open" for Roman eyes.

Odeion of Agrippa in Athens

In general, the old Roman forum shared with the Greek agora a commercial character, later adding civic, religious and even recreational activities, as eventually games were held in Rome during the Republic.

Monumental space in the Roman Forum

However, particularly in the imperial period, Roman Forum area evolved as a space for celebration and commemoration, both functional and symbolic terms, hence the monumental size of the structures. The forum turned into a stunning space for imperial power propaganda , and for this reason the commercial functions were relegated to a sector of it. Similarly, in Athens, the Romans forbade the market in the original agora, creating the so-called "Roman agora" for commercial purposes.

Roman Agora in Athens. In the background, the Acropolis

Religious buildings are also located in both the agora and the forum, serving a variety of symbolic functions.The Temple of Hephaestus , the god of the forge and anvil, presided over the agora in Athens, while in Rome, Minerva, patroness of the arts and crafts, was honored the Forum of Nerva. But the difference is noticeable in the scale of these religious buildings, being the Roman version the most monumental.

There are also architectural differences between the temples of the agora and the forum, although the Greek influence is evident in Roman buildings. However, while the Athenians placed the temple of Hephaestus on a krepidoma or platform which could be accessed from either side, as it was usual in Greek temples, in the Roman case there was only a frontal access through a staircase, leading to the temple placed on a much higher and more prominent pedestal .

Temple of Hephaestus, Agora

Temple of Antonio and Faustina in the Roman Forum,

In fact, although both spaces appear as the heart of their cities, their scale, formal, spatial and functional differences clearly express the kind of society they represented. These differences are evident not only between the agora and the forum, but in the evolution of the Republican forum to the Imperial Forums.

Finally, there is greater complexity in the development of the forum that in the case of the agora, expressed in the spatial distribution (sequence of squares and cloisters), the conformation of the building fabric (with types such as the basilica, for example), the landscaping of the urban space (including commemorative items such as arches and columns), the use of materials (like brick and concrete) and building techniques (such as the arch and the vault).

We should not forget, however, the great influence that the Greeks exerted over the Romans, both by the cultural concepts inherited by the latter as for the participation of numerous Greek architects and builders in the development of several Roman buildings and monuments.

TRAJAN'S MARKET, ROME

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Close to the Imperial Forums stands Trajan's Market, a fine example of the aesthetic, functional and constructive Roman genius, particularly regarding the use of brick. The first "shopping mall" in history is located next to the Forum of Trajan, housing more than 150 stores at different levels and with terraces overlooking the forum.

BACKGROUND

As we saw in a previous post, one of the functions that originated the Roman Forum was trade. Then, little by little the Imperial Forums were assuming the civic and memorial role, and therefore commerce was relegated to a few stores in the Basilica Emilia and Julia.


Trajan saw the need for a building that would specialize in the sale of products and decided to build it next to the majestic forum where he was revered as a deity. However, the lack of space available would require a major excavation on the slope of the Quirinal.

Trajan's Market in Roman times

Trajan's Market today.

DESIGN

The project for the market was commissioned by the emperor to Apollodorus of Damascus, his favorite architect and partner in his military campaigns (when he was commissioned to build the bridges). This brilliant architect would also be responsible for the construction of the Trajan's Forum itself. The prestige of Apollodorus did not stop with the death of his friend the Emperor, and he would continue working with Adrian for the design and construction of the Pantheon (it is said that it was Adriano who had Apollodorus killed for contravening his ideas).

During our visit, excavations were being conducted in the Forum of Trajan. In the background, the market.

The market was built between 100 and 110 AD following a semicircular layout, responding to the shape of the Basilica Ulpia's exedra which stood in front. The complex was developed on six levels, linked by lateral stairs.

Cross-section

The three lower levels facing the forum, were used for the sale of food products in stands called tabernae.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

It also comprised various zones, which meet specific functions. The following description is based on the official site of Trajan's Market .

a) Great Semi-Circle. b) Small Hemicycle. c) Forward Halls. d) Via Biberatica.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

a) Greater Semi-Circle

It was the area that was closer to the Forum of Trajan, so that the masonry and decoration were carefully worked.
As previously said, its semicircular shape echoes the layout of the exedra that stood in front, but it also had a structural purpose, as it better contained the load of the hill.
As the building was ascending in height, the rooms were going deeper into the hillside.



Eleven small rooms with vaults are located at the first level. Frescoes can be seen in the walls and black and white tiles covered the floor.
The second level has a semicircular corridor covered by a barrel vault, with windows to the facade.
The third floor has a service corridor open to the Biberatica street and an internal mezzanine.


b) Small Hemicycle

It is a three-story semicircular structure, located behind the northern hall.
In the first level the shops are organized along a semicircular hall, which did not received sunlight.
The second level, which was at the same height as the via Biberatica, was also organized along a semicircular corridor and received generous lighting.
The third level has rooms that open onto a hallway originally covered.

c) Forward Halls

Two halls of flat facade, covered by a dome split in half. Both originally had a central door, but now one of them the door is walled up.

d) Via Biberatica

It is a street paved with basalt, which connected both lower and higher sections of the complex and follows the semicircular shape of the urban layout.
At the end of the road stands an arch that is also the south buttress of the Central Body.


The upper floors were used for offices, the Great Hall and the Central Body.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body. f) Great Hall. g) Milizie Garden.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body

It has three floors with tabernae open to the via Biberatica.
On the first floor plant the spaces are irregular, and culminate in a room covered by a semi semicircular dome. Notice that this floor is semi buried at the same level of the Via Biberatica.
The second floor has a room in the form of apse and some decorated rooms of irregular shape.
The third level repeats the distribution of the rooms, but with less ornamentation.

Great Hall

This large space (32 x 8 m) is flanked by vaulted rooms on three levels.
On the first floor these areas bordered the hall, while in the second floor they were opened up onto corridors with pilasters. On the west side (valley), the first level rooms were adjacent to the via Bibarática. On the eastern side (Monte), a third level with interconnected areas, was accessible from the staircase serving the upper floors.


g) Milizie Garden

Located upon the Central Corps and the Great Hall is a road paved with slabs of basalt. La Torre delle Milizie was the result of several buildings constructed between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Between 1150-1200, a palace with a loggia on arches reused Roman structures, between 1200-1250 a corner of the loggia was occupied by a high tower, which from 1250-1275 was covered by the brick wall, that we see today.


CONSTRUCTION
The most outstanding feature of the market is that for the first time is that brick was used on a large scale. This method was fast and resistant and for that purpose a unique construction technique was chosen. Bricks were divided in half diagonally and then were arranged in two rows. In the middle, a mortar invented by the Romans was poured, the concrete, a mix of cement and gravel.

Image courtesy of Discovery Channel.

But the extraordinary ability of the Romans in the use of brick goes beyond its structural use, but also as an aesthetic element, using different styles for the arrangement of the masonry in the decoration of the facade.


TRAJAN'S MARKET AFTER THE EMPIRE

Following the collapse of the empire, the market was inhabited and fortified. Between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries the Castle of the Militia was built here, from which still survives the Torre delle Millizie, built in 1200.
Today you can see medieval houses added to the top floor.

The market as a fortification in medieval times , and as the Convent of Santa Catalina in more recent times.

Later a convent was built in the area, which was demolished in the early 30s to uncover the original Roman structure.


TRAJAN'S COLUMN


"When you go to the Trajan Market, don't miss the column" -a good friend told me- "and imagine that the Quirinal hill used to reach its top before its construction."

This superb column was erected by the Emperor Trajan in 114 AD to commemorate his victory over the Dacians. In fact, the impressive carvings that adorn the monument represent the emperor's military campaigns. The total length of the bas-relief is 200 m, and wraps the column 23 times.


It is impossible to appreciate the detail of the engravings to the naked eye (the column was between Ulpia Basilica and the Temple of Trajan), so that the artwork was made to be seen by the gods. After all, Trajan himself was considered one of them.


In addition, Trajan's Column stands out for its remarkable calligraphy .

The column is 30 m 8 m pedestal, and is composed of 18 blocks of marble from Carrara, 4 m and 40 tons each. It is, however a solid structure, as it has a staircase that allows access to the top.

Pedestal of Trajan's Column in a photo from 1860. Source Wikipedia.

Originally there was a statue of Trajan on its top, but in 1588 was replaced by a statue of San Pedro.


SEE ALSO
- GRECO-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy (212-17)
• Pantheon, Rome. Italy
• Roman Forum, urbanism

THE ROMAN FORUM, ARCHITECTURE

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Photo courtesy of dfworks

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As a symbol of imperial majesty and monumentality, the Roman Forums were characterized by their imposing temples and secular buildings, as well as by the ornamentation of the space with statues and allegorical motifs.

Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius

The previous post reviewed the historical development and urban layout of the forums in Rome, and this post will explore some of its most conspicuous monuments.

CURIA JULIA

"Curia" comes from"co-viri" which means "association of men" and "Senate" comes from "senex," which means "old man". The curia was originally the place where the elders of the tribes near Rome met . During the Republic, the primitive Hostilia Curia, a modest building where the Senate sat in simple wooden benches, was burned down by a mob in 52 BC.

The Curia Julia was started by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by his adopted son Augustus in 29 BC.


The brick building was originally covered by marble in its lower half and stucco imitating marble at the top, in the same style as the Baths of Caracalla. It features a rectangular layout of 25.2 x 17.6 m and 15.4 m high and is slightly rotated with respect to the old Curia Hostilia, defining more clearly the spatial boundary of the forum.

In front of the facade, covering elongated stairs, was a portico of Ionic columns called Chalcidium, which was dedicated to the goddess Minerva. He also had two huge bronze doors, which were moved to the church of San Giovanni in Laterano by Borromini, during the Baroque era.


The interior is a single room that hosted up to 300 senators. On the back was the podium, a seat for the President of the Senate.

Photo by Ignacio A.

On the side walls were three niches, the central one with a semicircular pediment and the other with a triangular one.

Roof of the Curia. Photo courtesy of jere7my

The Curia we see today was restored by Diocletian in 283 AD, after being partially destroyed by fire. At this time corresponds the current decoration visible on the mosaic floor .

Photo gmcdowel

In the early seventh century it was transformed into the Church of St. Hadrian.

Photo courtesy of antmoose

In the 1930s Mussolini ordered the demolition of the church and restored the building closely to its original status.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

It is the best preserved building in the Roman Forum. It is located east of the Basilica Emilia, facing the Via Sacra. It was built by Antoninus Pius when his wife Faustina died in 141 AD.
The building rests on a podium and consists of a cella originally clad in marble, a pronaos of six Corinthian columns with capitals carved in white marble, and a height of 17 m. The frieze is decorated with griffins. The building rests on a stylobate.


Notable for the simplicity and purity of its style, which is Corinthian, hexastyle (6 columns) and prostyle (with freestanding columns in front of the buiding).

In the columns some marks can be seen, correspondent to the incisions that were made in the Middle Ages, in order to tear them down with ropes.


In the seventeenth century the temple was transformed into the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.


BASILICA JULIA

This long building (109 x 48 m) was started by Julius Caesar in 54 BC, completed by Augustus in 12 BC and rebuilt by Diocletian in 283 AD. The basilica is one of the most important types of Roman architecture and was subsequently adopted in the early churches of Christianity.


The basilica rested on a podium and was surrounded by a colonnade of two levels. Its main hall, (82 x 18 m) was 3 storiess high and could be divided into four parts by removable wooden structures. It also had two smaller naves on the sides. Among its functions, it housed civil courts and shops.



BASILICA EMILIA

Parallel to the Basilica Julia, this trapezoidal building (70 x 30 m) consisted of three naves, with the central one 12 m wide. It was surrounded by an arcade of 16 arches in each of its two levels.

It was built in 179 BC by Aemilius Lepidus and expanded through the centuries. The building came to replace the old tabernae of the Roman forum, therefore new shops called novae tabernae were included .

Temple of Saturn

Here we are, at the foot of what remains of the temple of Saturn, 8 columns of its portico. The scale is, indeed, monumental, and one can not help feeling moved to imagine the impression that this structure would had produce in ordinary Roman citizens when it was still complete.

This temple is the oldest structure in the area, dating from 501 to 498 BC and it housed the Roman state treasury. It was an Ionic temple, in whose interior the statue of Saturn, the god of agriculture, was carefully housed .

Photo courtesy of San Juan Ramon .

Arch of Septimius Severus

The Arch of Septimius Severus was erected in 203 by his sons Caracalla and Geta to celebrate the triumphs of the emperor. It is a marble gateway, richly decorated in bas-reliefs, with a main central arch and two smaller side arches (another reference to the Emperor and his sons). There are four protruding columns, and on top of the arch was originally a bronze sculpture of a chariot of the Emperor Septimius with his two sons. A curious detail is that, after the bloody Caracalla killed his brother Geta in front of his mother, he had to remove his name from all monuments in the empire.

The third and final part of this series on the forums will focus on the interesting market of Trajan, that I will review in a future post. Until then.

SEE ALSO
- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy (212-17)
• Pantheon, Rome. Italy
• Roman Forum, urbanism