THE CATACOMBS OF SAINT CALLISTUS, ROME

Crypt of St. Cecilia in the Catacombs of San Callisto.

ESPAÑOL

Today is December 24, the tenth month, and here in Rome, many are preparing for tomorrow's festivities . However, for us, a community of fellow Christians, today is a sad day. Our brother is dead, a martyr of our faith and we will bury him in the underground tombs on the outskirts of the city. Because, unlike the pagans who cremate their dead, we Christians buried ours, because we believe in the resurrection of the dead and the coming of our Lord. Yesterday a Greek Christian was telling me about a new idea advocated by his group or sector [sect]: that we all have a soul, a psyche, and if we will fulfill the Word we will go to "Heaven". I did not quite understand that idea, I just know that we will rise and inhabit the Kingdom of our Lord, who is soon to come.

A Nabataean merchant coming from Petra was surprised:
- "Why do you Christians gather in these 'catacombs'?" - he asked me in his bad Latin. "Could it be that you fear that the will Romans persecute you and kill you?"
- "No." I answered, "The 'cata tumbas' or 'among the tombs' are cemeteries. Although occasionally we carry out celebrations and processions there, these galleries are too dark and the smell of bodies is sometimes unbearable. And they are not secret, they are next to the Appian Way which is a very busy road, everyone knows they are there. "
- "But why you have built them?"
- "The reason is because it is not allowed to bury bodies within the city, and as we Christians are poor or slaves, we have no money for sarcophagi or mausoleums, and therefore we are buried in these galleries."
- But making these tunnels is not more expensive?
- No, the underground soil is soft [volcanic tufa] - and there are many people dedicated to this task [fossores].
- "And how many catacombs are there in Rome?"
- "I would say some 50. There are other underground galleries for Jews and poor Romans."

Scheme of the catacombs around the Appian Way

I get distracted thinking that although Christianity is now permitted, many Romans discriminate against us because of our social status and our customs. For example, we do not usually attend the public baths, nor we go to the Coliseum, like them. They consider us dirty, annoying and fanatical. We just want to show them the true faith, but while there are not many large-scale persecutions as before, there is often friction, assault and even murder, as happened to our brother.

I say goodbye to my Nabatean friend and I join the small funeral procession. After passing the Aurelian Walls , recently built to replace the old Servian walls , we move along the magnificent Via Appia, which reaches Calabria. On the way we met with merchants, travelers, and a group of Legionnaires, which is logical since this straight paved road was built mainly for military purposes.

Aurelian Walls, built from 271 AD

Appian Way

Roman countryside

To the sides numerous statues, memorials, and monuments, adorn the road. One of the most impressive is the tomb of Cecilia Metella , a cylindrical structure located on a promontory overlooking the Roman countryside, sometimes crossed by rows of cypresses.

Tomb of Cecilia Metella, next to the Appian Way

But we will not reach there, my fellow martyr will be buried in the galleries of St. Callistus, which are about a mile and a half from the walls [one mile amounted to a thousand steps, ie 1.48 km].

See location on Google Maps

St. Callistus was a Pope who died for their faith, the first Martyr Pope after St. Peter .


The area of ​​St Callistus has two parts: the cemetery of Callistus itself and the Crypts of Lucina, which consists of two galleries connected by an underground passage.

Catacombs of San Callisto around 200 AD (left) and after expansion in 220 AD
A and B are the original galleries. C. Cubicle Orpheus. D. Crypt of the Popes. E. Sacramental Chapels. Source: Early Christian Art and Architecture. Robert Milburn.

The construction process of the galleries is very interesting. First they laid on a plot already designated as cemetery [often belonging to a Christian family or given away to the Christians as a gift]. From the surface, stairs were cut to give way to two horizontal tunnels [ambulatory], about 4 pedis wide[1 meter; 1 Roman foot = 29.6 cm] for about 5 or 6 cubitus high- [2.5 meters; 1 cubit = 44.3 cm]. Rows of niches [loculi] are arranged on the sides of the galleries, sealed with slabs of marble or terracotta.

Loculi

When the space is filled, then new stairs are created and they dig a new level. When there are enough niches, they excavate a third level, and so on. The galleries are reinforced with arches and vaults, to prevent landslides. It is preferable to dig more levels rather than making more niches per level, to avoid the risk of collapse. [St Callistus reached 7 levels and 23 m depth]. For this reason, the oldest graves are in the upper levels, while the newest ones are at the deepest levels.

Schematic section of the catacombs

But our brother will not be buried in a niche. He died as a martyr and therefore he will be buried in a chamber [cubiculum]. The chambers have a small retirement and are built under an arch. They belong to wealthy families or are reserved for martyrs. The chambers are then coated with plaster and painted. Some lucky ones are buried radially around the martyrs [retro sanctos] ... I would like to have that privilege. Other types of tombs are curved niches [arcosolium] and frescoed chapels [crypt].

Cubiculum

Arcosolium

There are several rooms that are really beautiful. The Crypt of the Bishops Martyrs [now known as the Crypt of the Popes] is where they buried the bishops of Rome and is formed by a large vault.

Crypt of the Popes

Another beautiful crypt is that of St. Cecilia, another martyr of our times that lies buried here.

Crypt of St. Cecilia. Her remains were transferred in 820 to the basilica that bears her name. The statue is a replica of a baroque sculpture by Stefano Maderno (1636)

Inside, many Christian artists have decorated the walls with representations of Jesus and other related topics. The Jews bitterly accuse us of idolatry, since their religion, from which ours was originated, prohibits human representations. But, what I can say? We are Romans, the art is in our blood and this is the way to express our faith. Of course, we are not as skilled as those pagan artists that decorate the homes of the rich people. We are humble people with little education, but we do our best in these difficult lighting conditions.

Representation of the multiplication of the loaves.

However, some artists who often decorated villas with figures of Apollo, now, after their conversion, they do the same figures representing Jesus.
Other representations are more symbolic: the alpha and omega [Alpha A / α and Omega Ω / ω are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet] represent the beginning and the end; the Chi Rho with the first letters of the name of Christ [the Monogram of Christ is formed by the Greek letters X (chi) and P (rho), the first two characters of the word Χριστός (Christos, "The Anointed One")] and the fish, which in Greek is ΙΧΘΥΣ and is a symbol used in times of persecution [ICTYS stands for "Iesus Christos Soter Yios Teo," which means "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior."]

Chi Rho

And that is because the most spoken language among Christians is Greek, not Latin [the ancient gospels and the epistles of Paul were written in Greek, as well as the first New Testament officially accepted by the Council of Nicea (325 AD). St. Jerome would be the first to translate the Bible into Latin, in 405, from the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem ].

At the lowest level there is complete darkness, barely lit up by the torches. To be among the tombs gives me mixed feelings: on one hand, I dread the darkness as, when I was younger, I was lost for several hours in this absolute blackness, surrounded only by the eerie silence of death.

However, when I come here with my brothers, I have the feeling of actually being in community, away from the ridicule and criticism from the pagans. Some brothers come to visit relatives, the martyrs and saints, and they even organize commemorative meal [refrigeria].

Our brother rests now in peace and he will be among the first to be resurrected when the Kingdom of Our Lord comes to us. On the way back to Rome we met many people who is going to town for the festivities. Today is the shortest day of the year and tomorrow, December 25th, will be as if the sun had been born again, so that the pagans will be given to big events in the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the "Birth Day of the Invincible Sun." But for us Christians, this date represents the Birth Day of Christ, the Invincible.

***

Note: this is not a blog about religion and the purpose of this post is not necessarily apostolic. The idea is, based on historical data, to propose a review of an architectural monument in the way a Roman Christian would narrate it in the late third century.
I would like to take this opportunity to wish you happy holidays and much success for the coming year.

Sources:
- Early Christian art and architecture. Robert Milburn
- Wikipedia and various websites.
- Visit to the Catacombs of San Callisto, Rome. March 2, 2006.

SEE ALSO
- Early Christian Architecture

• Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, Palestine

The Catacombs of Saint Callistus are one of those places that convey spirituality beyond a particular religion. Christians of all denominations, Muslims, Jews and non-believers visit them each year.
Along with Jan, Hugo and Arnel (who took the photo) during our visit.

THE ROMAN COLOSSEUM

Photo courtesy of Stuck in customs

ESPAÑOL

The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Roman Colosseum is the most conspicuous building in the Italian capital. It is one of those buildings that became symbols of a city and even a country. It is the most remarkable urban landmark from ancient Rome, visible from anywhere in the eternal city's monumental zone (although it appeared suddenly to us as we approached from the Esquiline Hill, and we were amazed by its monumentality).

Burning Rom (e). Photo courtesy of Alena Romanenko

This UNESCO World Heritage site was chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the world, perhaps not only because of the monument itself, but as a way to pay homage the Roman contribution to Western civilization. It was a center devoted to recreation and death, but it was primarily a effective form of political propaganda and social control of the population.

BACKGROUND.

In 66 AD a revolt broke out in Judea against the Roman tyranny. Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian to subjugated it (some time before, Nero had Vespasian exiled for falling asleep in one of the insufferable performances of the emperor-artist). In 68, Nero was declared an enemy of the empire because of the abusive and unpopular taxes that he imposed to Rome, and as a result he killed himself. The political crisis that followed his death saw three emperors in one year, until the Senate looked for a respectable figure to lead the empire. Vespasian then left his son Titus in charge of the war against the Jews and took over as emperor, not by right of blood but by his great skills as a general, founding the Flavian dynasty, which gave its name to the Amphitheatre.

In taking power, Vespasian found a discontented and unemployed population, and decided to build a majestic venue to keep people entertained and away from possible riots. Faced with a nearly bankrupt state and wanting to avoid raising taxes (which had led to the debacle of Nero), Vespasian used the treasures of the Temple of Jerusalem (who had finally fallen to Titus in 70) and the huge revenues from the sale of Jewish citizens as slaves in order to finance its amphitheater.

Model of the Temple of Jerusalem, whose treasures were used for the construction of the Colosseum.
The temple was sacked by the Romans before its destruction in 70 AD

LOCATION

In a small valley between the Palatine, Esquiline and Celio hills, Nero had built a luxurious private palace, the Domus Aurea ("Golden House"), presided by a 36 meter statue of the emperor himself and an exquisite artificial lake.

Rome before the creation of the Colosseum. The Domus Aurea and the Colossus of Nero was placed in front of an emperor's private lake.

Imperial Rome, the Colosseum and the forums built. Both maps are not in the same orientation. For reference please place both at the Circus Maximus

The Colosseum and Rome today.
See location on Google Maps

In 71 AD Vespasian planned to give that space back to the people and ordered the construction of the amphitheater that site. The lake was then drained towards the Tiber River and canals were built surrounding the area in order to divert the superficial water and rainwater. The statue of Nero, however, was kept, and the amphitheater was called the Colosseum because of its proximity to that colossal statue.

The proximity to the Colossus of Nero gave its name to the Colosseum.

However, Vespasian did not live to see his work completed. After his death in 79 AD, his son Titus came to power and finished its construction in 80 AD. It is said that on the opening day 5000 animals were sacrificed for the bloody shows. Imagine the slaughter of animals brought from all over the empire when the opening games were extended for 100 days. Some even claim that occasionally  the arena was flooded with water and that sea battles took place, but some scholars have questioned this claim for lack of  impermeable archaeological remains .

According to the poet Marcial and the historian Suetonius the arena of the Colosseum was sometimes flooded and representations naval battles were shown.

DESIGN

The Greeks defined their theaters based on a semicircular shape with their seats arrayed facing a stage. This form that was also appropriated by the Romans and disseminated throughout the Empire; however the amphitheater is a Roman invention consisting of a circular, oval or elliptical  set of stands arranged around an  arena.


This formal dissimilarity also involved a distinct use by a different audience. Theaters in Rome were used for plays, attended by a cultured elite. Amphitheaters were more likely to sports or fighting, and were favorites of various social strata, including slaves. In fact, one could say that the Flavian Amphitheatre represented, in its differentiated bleachers, the stratified Roman society: the imperial family was in a privileged position, then came the senators, aristocrats, soldiers, the people, slaves and, in a farer location, women.

Model of Imperial Rome Colosseum.

The oval layout measured 188 meters in its longest axis and 155 in the shortest. The arena measured 83 meters in its longest axis and 48 in the shortest.


The original design of Vespasian included three rows of semicircular arches, supported by Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns respectively.

The lower arches were made of stone, while the second and third series of arches were made of brick and concrete. They were decorated with fine marble, statues and frescoes on the walls.

Reconstruction of the facade of the Colosseum. The marble-coated arches housed monumental statues.

The study of visibility allowed all spectators to have a good overview of the games. The visual angle of the stands was varied from 30° to 35° as they were gaining height.

To facilitate the rapid evacuation of the 50,000 spectators 76 entries were implemented . The entrance of the Emperor was burred underground, communicating directly the Colosseum with the palace.

Later, in 90 AD, the emperor Domitian, Vespasian's second son, made a series of renovations to the monument in order to make it appear more imposing, to enhance its capacity and comfort and made it more affordable for most spectacular battles.

Domitian, included a brick and concrete gallery above the arches, after which the Coliseum reached a height of 50 meters.

Addition of Domitian on top the arches built by Vespasian. Photo courtesy of Mimmo photophilic

This attic also held the huge tents called "velarium", which served to protect spectators from rain or the extreme solar radiation in summer, and were operated by a thousand sailors.

Reconstruction of the Velarium.

Below the arena he ordered to install a hypogeum, a labyrinth that housed cages with animals, ramps and lifts for gladiators, which allowed the rapid entry of these in the arena, and also facilitated the rapid removal of dead animals and humans bodies. Covering the hypogeum was a wooden deck that has not preserved.

Views of the Hypogeum. Photos courtesy of Chodaboy

Reconstruction of the Hypogeum.

CONSTRUCTION

The Colosseum perfected and used several innovative construction elements, that have been used for many centuries, some of them are even today.

While the arch was invented in Mesopotamia and used in Egypt and Greece among others (though usually on a smaller scale and underground drains) it was the Romans who developed and enhanced its use to a monumental level. The arch is based on a simple principle: the loads are transmitted  through the rocks that form it (voussoirs) to the pillars that support it, and it holds its shape without falling due to the pressure of a center wedge called keystone .

The 80 arches of 7 meters tall that make up each of the 3 floors of the venue could simultaneously cover a great height, holding a heavy load while affording lightness to the building.

Photo courtesy of Rodrigo Larrabure

Inside, the arches are connected by another invention perfected by the Romans, the vault. The vaults generate wide, solid and elegant spaces.


Standardization of elements such as bricks, stonework and the arches themselves, allowed the construction of these repetitive elements in mass, at high speed and without the need of a very specialized labor.


Among the materials that were improved and used on a large scale include:

- Concrete, which allowed the mortar to achieve a stone-like strength, mixing volcanic ash, lime and water. It was also very malleable. By adding pumice the concrete was lighten and the ashes brought from Pozzuoli, near Mount Vesuvius, were able to provide waterproof characteristics, calling it "Pozzolanic".

-Red brick. While terracotta (terra cotta in Latin means "baked earth") had been used before by the Romans to make tiles, since the Coliseum brick started to be used in the walls and vaults


DECLINE

The games in the Coliseum continued until at least 523, long after the fall of Rome. However, the amphitheater was gradually abandoned and used for other purposes. The central arena was used as a cemetery, and the interior of the stands was transformed into housing and workshops, at least until the late twelfth century.

Medieval drawing of the Colosseum in 1469

Map of Medieval Rome 

In 1200 the Colosseum was fortified, being used as a castle. In 1349 the southern end of the amphitheater collapsed because of an earthquake, and the materials were reused in the reconstruction of many other buildings in Rome.
A religious order moved into the northern sector of the Coliseum and remained there until the late nineteenth century.

Piranese Gianbattista Drawings, 1772

Due to the growing vandalism that was eating away at the monument, Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the Colosseum as a place where many Christians were killed, prohibiting its use as a quarry (despite the fact that there are no evidence of massacres of Christians on a large scale in the Amphitheatre). Inside the Coliseum marble slabs detailing the restoration work carried out by various popes can be seen.


In 1807 and to solve the danger of collapse of the facade, the triangular wall we see today was built.

The Coliseum as a sacred place. Photo of the late nineteenth

In 1930 Benito Mussolini had the hypogeum excavated and left it exposed. In addition, he enhanced Amphitheatre from an urban point of view: he created a roundabout circling the Colosseum and connected it to the monument to Victor Emmanuel II through a wide avenue called Via dell'Impero (now Via del Fori Imperiali).

Before and after the creation of the Via dell'Impero by Mussolini in 1932.
The Duce wanted to return to the glory days of the Roman Empire.

In 1995 a complete restoration of the Coliseum was undertook, making it 80% accessible to the public.

INFLUENCE

The Colosseum has had an undeniable influence on the design of stadiums and sports infrastructure through the centuries and even today its basic principles of composition are repeated around the world. In the case of HispanAmerica the Coliseum has a much closer relative, both in its form and function as well as for the type of bloody shows that take place inside: the bullring.

Malaga Bullring
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The epic film Gladiator (2000) contains so many fallacies and historical inaccuracies that is more a Hollywood fantasy than an academic document. However, the recreation of the Coliseum in Rome in the middle of a vibrant crowd is indeed very impressive.

SEE ALSO
- GRECO -ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy (212-17)
• Pantheon, Rome. Italy
• Roman Forum, urbanism