THE ROMAN COLOSSEUM

Photo courtesy of Stuck in customs

ESPAÑOL

The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Roman Colosseum is the most conspicuous building in the Italian capital. It is one of those buildings that became symbols of a city and even a country. It is the most remarkable urban landmark from ancient Rome, visible from anywhere in the eternal city's monumental zone (although it appeared suddenly to us as we approached from the Esquiline Hill, and we were amazed by its monumentality).

Burning Rom (e). Photo courtesy of Alena Romanenko

This UNESCO World Heritage site was chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the world, perhaps not only because of the monument itself, but as a way to pay homage the Roman contribution to Western civilization. It was a center devoted to recreation and death, but it was primarily a effective form of political propaganda and social control of the population.

BACKGROUND.

In 66 AD a revolt broke out in Judea against the Roman tyranny. Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian to subjugated it (some time before, Nero had Vespasian exiled for falling asleep in one of the insufferable performances of the emperor-artist). In 68, Nero was declared an enemy of the empire because of the abusive and unpopular taxes that he imposed to Rome, and as a result he killed himself. The political crisis that followed his death saw three emperors in one year, until the Senate looked for a respectable figure to lead the empire. Vespasian then left his son Titus in charge of the war against the Jews and took over as emperor, not by right of blood but by his great skills as a general, founding the Flavian dynasty, which gave its name to the Amphitheatre.

In taking power, Vespasian found a discontented and unemployed population, and decided to build a majestic venue to keep people entertained and away from possible riots. Faced with a nearly bankrupt state and wanting to avoid raising taxes (which had led to the debacle of Nero), Vespasian used the treasures of the Temple of Jerusalem (who had finally fallen to Titus in 70) and the huge revenues from the sale of Jewish citizens as slaves in order to finance its amphitheater.

Model of the Temple of Jerusalem, whose treasures were used for the construction of the Colosseum.
The temple was sacked by the Romans before its destruction in 70 AD

LOCATION

In a small valley between the Palatine, Esquiline and Celio hills, Nero had built a luxurious private palace, the Domus Aurea ("Golden House"), presided by a 36 meter statue of the emperor himself and an exquisite artificial lake.

Rome before the creation of the Colosseum. The Domus Aurea and the Colossus of Nero was placed in front of an emperor's private lake.

Imperial Rome, the Colosseum and the forums built. Both maps are not in the same orientation. For reference please place both at the Circus Maximus

The Colosseum and Rome today.
See location on Google Maps

In 71 AD Vespasian planned to give that space back to the people and ordered the construction of the amphitheater that site. The lake was then drained towards the Tiber River and canals were built surrounding the area in order to divert the superficial water and rainwater. The statue of Nero, however, was kept, and the amphitheater was called the Colosseum because of its proximity to that colossal statue.

The proximity to the Colossus of Nero gave its name to the Colosseum.

However, Vespasian did not live to see his work completed. After his death in 79 AD, his son Titus came to power and finished its construction in 80 AD. It is said that on the opening day 5000 animals were sacrificed for the bloody shows. Imagine the slaughter of animals brought from all over the empire when the opening games were extended for 100 days. Some even claim that occasionally  the arena was flooded with water and that sea battles took place, but some scholars have questioned this claim for lack of  impermeable archaeological remains .

According to the poet Marcial and the historian Suetonius the arena of the Colosseum was sometimes flooded and representations naval battles were shown.

DESIGN

The Greeks defined their theaters based on a semicircular shape with their seats arrayed facing a stage. This form that was also appropriated by the Romans and disseminated throughout the Empire; however the amphitheater is a Roman invention consisting of a circular, oval or elliptical  set of stands arranged around an  arena.


This formal dissimilarity also involved a distinct use by a different audience. Theaters in Rome were used for plays, attended by a cultured elite. Amphitheaters were more likely to sports or fighting, and were favorites of various social strata, including slaves. In fact, one could say that the Flavian Amphitheatre represented, in its differentiated bleachers, the stratified Roman society: the imperial family was in a privileged position, then came the senators, aristocrats, soldiers, the people, slaves and, in a farer location, women.

Model of Imperial Rome Colosseum.

The oval layout measured 188 meters in its longest axis and 155 in the shortest. The arena measured 83 meters in its longest axis and 48 in the shortest.


The original design of Vespasian included three rows of semicircular arches, supported by Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns respectively.

The lower arches were made of stone, while the second and third series of arches were made of brick and concrete. They were decorated with fine marble, statues and frescoes on the walls.

Reconstruction of the facade of the Colosseum. The marble-coated arches housed monumental statues.

The study of visibility allowed all spectators to have a good overview of the games. The visual angle of the stands was varied from 30° to 35° as they were gaining height.

To facilitate the rapid evacuation of the 50,000 spectators 76 entries were implemented . The entrance of the Emperor was burred underground, communicating directly the Colosseum with the palace.

Later, in 90 AD, the emperor Domitian, Vespasian's second son, made a series of renovations to the monument in order to make it appear more imposing, to enhance its capacity and comfort and made it more affordable for most spectacular battles.

Domitian, included a brick and concrete gallery above the arches, after which the Coliseum reached a height of 50 meters.

Addition of Domitian on top the arches built by Vespasian. Photo courtesy of Mimmo photophilic

This attic also held the huge tents called "velarium", which served to protect spectators from rain or the extreme solar radiation in summer, and were operated by a thousand sailors.

Reconstruction of the Velarium.

Below the arena he ordered to install a hypogeum, a labyrinth that housed cages with animals, ramps and lifts for gladiators, which allowed the rapid entry of these in the arena, and also facilitated the rapid removal of dead animals and humans bodies. Covering the hypogeum was a wooden deck that has not preserved.

Views of the Hypogeum. Photos courtesy of Chodaboy

Reconstruction of the Hypogeum.

CONSTRUCTION

The Colosseum perfected and used several innovative construction elements, that have been used for many centuries, some of them are even today.

While the arch was invented in Mesopotamia and used in Egypt and Greece among others (though usually on a smaller scale and underground drains) it was the Romans who developed and enhanced its use to a monumental level. The arch is based on a simple principle: the loads are transmitted  through the rocks that form it (voussoirs) to the pillars that support it, and it holds its shape without falling due to the pressure of a center wedge called keystone .

The 80 arches of 7 meters tall that make up each of the 3 floors of the venue could simultaneously cover a great height, holding a heavy load while affording lightness to the building.

Photo courtesy of Rodrigo Larrabure

Inside, the arches are connected by another invention perfected by the Romans, the vault. The vaults generate wide, solid and elegant spaces.


Standardization of elements such as bricks, stonework and the arches themselves, allowed the construction of these repetitive elements in mass, at high speed and without the need of a very specialized labor.


Among the materials that were improved and used on a large scale include:

- Concrete, which allowed the mortar to achieve a stone-like strength, mixing volcanic ash, lime and water. It was also very malleable. By adding pumice the concrete was lighten and the ashes brought from Pozzuoli, near Mount Vesuvius, were able to provide waterproof characteristics, calling it "Pozzolanic".

-Red brick. While terracotta (terra cotta in Latin means "baked earth") had been used before by the Romans to make tiles, since the Coliseum brick started to be used in the walls and vaults


DECLINE

The games in the Coliseum continued until at least 523, long after the fall of Rome. However, the amphitheater was gradually abandoned and used for other purposes. The central arena was used as a cemetery, and the interior of the stands was transformed into housing and workshops, at least until the late twelfth century.

Medieval drawing of the Colosseum in 1469

Map of Medieval Rome 

In 1200 the Colosseum was fortified, being used as a castle. In 1349 the southern end of the amphitheater collapsed because of an earthquake, and the materials were reused in the reconstruction of many other buildings in Rome.
A religious order moved into the northern sector of the Coliseum and remained there until the late nineteenth century.

Piranese Gianbattista Drawings, 1772

Due to the growing vandalism that was eating away at the monument, Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the Colosseum as a place where many Christians were killed, prohibiting its use as a quarry (despite the fact that there are no evidence of massacres of Christians on a large scale in the Amphitheatre). Inside the Coliseum marble slabs detailing the restoration work carried out by various popes can be seen.


In 1807 and to solve the danger of collapse of the facade, the triangular wall we see today was built.

The Coliseum as a sacred place. Photo of the late nineteenth

In 1930 Benito Mussolini had the hypogeum excavated and left it exposed. In addition, he enhanced Amphitheatre from an urban point of view: he created a roundabout circling the Colosseum and connected it to the monument to Victor Emmanuel II through a wide avenue called Via dell'Impero (now Via del Fori Imperiali).

Before and after the creation of the Via dell'Impero by Mussolini in 1932.
The Duce wanted to return to the glory days of the Roman Empire.

In 1995 a complete restoration of the Coliseum was undertook, making it 80% accessible to the public.

INFLUENCE

The Colosseum has had an undeniable influence on the design of stadiums and sports infrastructure through the centuries and even today its basic principles of composition are repeated around the world. In the case of HispanAmerica the Coliseum has a much closer relative, both in its form and function as well as for the type of bloody shows that take place inside: the bullring.

Malaga Bullring
****

The epic film Gladiator (2000) contains so many fallacies and historical inaccuracies that is more a Hollywood fantasy than an academic document. However, the recreation of the Coliseum in Rome in the middle of a vibrant crowd is indeed very impressive.

SEE ALSO
- GRECO -ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy (212-17)
• Pantheon, Rome. Italy
• Roman Forum, urbanism

THE AGORA OF ATHENS VS. THE ROMAN FORUM

ESPAÑOL

"The Greek agora establishes a formal typology, the Roman Forum defines the symbolism of the square as a center of an architecture and a society essentially urban. While the Greek agora contributed to giving the citizen self-consciousness, the Roman Forum made him aware of the state. "

Juan Carlos Pérgolis in his book "The Plaza. The center of the City"

It is inevitable to establish a parallel between the agora , the public space developed by the Athenians, and the Roman Forum. In fact, it is possible that the Roman space received influences from its Greek equivalent, a theory reinforced by the fact that in Etruscan cities (that preceded the Romans) no traces of a similar public space have been found. After all, the Agora was, as the forum, the most important public space in the city, where people would gather to discuss important aspects of their community.

Aerial view of Roman Forum

In terms of their relationship with the landscape, it is possible to establish similarities between the Athenian agora and the Republican forum. Both areas were located on flat land near or surrounded by hills (the forum was built on a drained swamp), and the way buildings are crammed into the original forum around the Capitoline Hill evoke the urban arrangement of structures around the the Aeropagus hill in the early agora. It should be noted, however, the imposing presence of the Acropolis, a visual and symbolic landmark -with no equivalent in Rome- that influenced the layout of the circulation and the use of public space in Athens.

Drawing of the Agora with the Acropolis in the background

In later stages the Imperial Forums became more defined, geometric, and enclosed, forming a series of separate spaces. This geometric rationality is also observable in forums of Roman cities such as Gerash and Caesarea, or Romanized cities, like Petra. I wonder if the construction of Odeion of Agrippa in the center of the agora would have been an attempt by the Empire to define the urban space that would appear too "open" for Roman eyes.

Odeion of Agrippa in Athens

In general, the old Roman forum shared with the Greek agora a commercial character, later adding civic, religious and even recreational activities, as eventually games were held in Rome during the Republic.

Monumental space in the Roman Forum

However, particularly in the imperial period, Roman Forum area evolved as a space for celebration and commemoration, both functional and symbolic terms, hence the monumental size of the structures. The forum turned into a stunning space for imperial power propaganda , and for this reason the commercial functions were relegated to a sector of it. Similarly, in Athens, the Romans forbade the market in the original agora, creating the so-called "Roman agora" for commercial purposes.

Roman Agora in Athens. In the background, the Acropolis

Religious buildings are also located in both the agora and the forum, serving a variety of symbolic functions.The Temple of Hephaestus , the god of the forge and anvil, presided over the agora in Athens, while in Rome, Minerva, patroness of the arts and crafts, was honored the Forum of Nerva. But the difference is noticeable in the scale of these religious buildings, being the Roman version the most monumental.

There are also architectural differences between the temples of the agora and the forum, although the Greek influence is evident in Roman buildings. However, while the Athenians placed the temple of Hephaestus on a krepidoma or platform which could be accessed from either side, as it was usual in Greek temples, in the Roman case there was only a frontal access through a staircase, leading to the temple placed on a much higher and more prominent pedestal .

Temple of Hephaestus, Agora

Temple of Antonio and Faustina in the Roman Forum,

In fact, although both spaces appear as the heart of their cities, their scale, formal, spatial and functional differences clearly express the kind of society they represented. These differences are evident not only between the agora and the forum, but in the evolution of the Republican forum to the Imperial Forums.

Finally, there is greater complexity in the development of the forum that in the case of the agora, expressed in the spatial distribution (sequence of squares and cloisters), the conformation of the building fabric (with types such as the basilica, for example), the landscaping of the urban space (including commemorative items such as arches and columns), the use of materials (like brick and concrete) and building techniques (such as the arch and the vault).

We should not forget, however, the great influence that the Greeks exerted over the Romans, both by the cultural concepts inherited by the latter as for the participation of numerous Greek architects and builders in the development of several Roman buildings and monuments.

TRAJAN'S MARKET, ROME

ESPAÑOL

Close to the Imperial Forums stands Trajan's Market, a fine example of the aesthetic, functional and constructive Roman genius, particularly regarding the use of brick. The first "shopping mall" in history is located next to the Forum of Trajan, housing more than 150 stores at different levels and with terraces overlooking the forum.

BACKGROUND

As we saw in a previous post, one of the functions that originated the Roman Forum was trade. Then, little by little the Imperial Forums were assuming the civic and memorial role, and therefore commerce was relegated to a few stores in the Basilica Emilia and Julia.


Trajan saw the need for a building that would specialize in the sale of products and decided to build it next to the majestic forum where he was revered as a deity. However, the lack of space available would require a major excavation on the slope of the Quirinal.

Trajan's Market in Roman times

Trajan's Market today.

DESIGN

The project for the market was commissioned by the emperor to Apollodorus of Damascus, his favorite architect and partner in his military campaigns (when he was commissioned to build the bridges). This brilliant architect would also be responsible for the construction of the Trajan's Forum itself. The prestige of Apollodorus did not stop with the death of his friend the Emperor, and he would continue working with Adrian for the design and construction of the Pantheon (it is said that it was Adriano who had Apollodorus killed for contravening his ideas).

During our visit, excavations were being conducted in the Forum of Trajan. In the background, the market.

The market was built between 100 and 110 AD following a semicircular layout, responding to the shape of the Basilica Ulpia's exedra which stood in front. The complex was developed on six levels, linked by lateral stairs.

Cross-section

The three lower levels facing the forum, were used for the sale of food products in stands called tabernae.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

It also comprised various zones, which meet specific functions. The following description is based on the official site of Trajan's Market .

a) Great Semi-Circle. b) Small Hemicycle. c) Forward Halls. d) Via Biberatica.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

a) Greater Semi-Circle

It was the area that was closer to the Forum of Trajan, so that the masonry and decoration were carefully worked.
As previously said, its semicircular shape echoes the layout of the exedra that stood in front, but it also had a structural purpose, as it better contained the load of the hill.
As the building was ascending in height, the rooms were going deeper into the hillside.



Eleven small rooms with vaults are located at the first level. Frescoes can be seen in the walls and black and white tiles covered the floor.
The second level has a semicircular corridor covered by a barrel vault, with windows to the facade.
The third floor has a service corridor open to the Biberatica street and an internal mezzanine.


b) Small Hemicycle

It is a three-story semicircular structure, located behind the northern hall.
In the first level the shops are organized along a semicircular hall, which did not received sunlight.
The second level, which was at the same height as the via Biberatica, was also organized along a semicircular corridor and received generous lighting.
The third level has rooms that open onto a hallway originally covered.

c) Forward Halls

Two halls of flat facade, covered by a dome split in half. Both originally had a central door, but now one of them the door is walled up.

d) Via Biberatica

It is a street paved with basalt, which connected both lower and higher sections of the complex and follows the semicircular shape of the urban layout.
At the end of the road stands an arch that is also the south buttress of the Central Body.


The upper floors were used for offices, the Great Hall and the Central Body.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body. f) Great Hall. g) Milizie Garden.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body

It has three floors with tabernae open to the via Biberatica.
On the first floor plant the spaces are irregular, and culminate in a room covered by a semi semicircular dome. Notice that this floor is semi buried at the same level of the Via Biberatica.
The second floor has a room in the form of apse and some decorated rooms of irregular shape.
The third level repeats the distribution of the rooms, but with less ornamentation.

Great Hall

This large space (32 x 8 m) is flanked by vaulted rooms on three levels.
On the first floor these areas bordered the hall, while in the second floor they were opened up onto corridors with pilasters. On the west side (valley), the first level rooms were adjacent to the via Bibarática. On the eastern side (Monte), a third level with interconnected areas, was accessible from the staircase serving the upper floors.


g) Milizie Garden

Located upon the Central Corps and the Great Hall is a road paved with slabs of basalt. La Torre delle Milizie was the result of several buildings constructed between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Between 1150-1200, a palace with a loggia on arches reused Roman structures, between 1200-1250 a corner of the loggia was occupied by a high tower, which from 1250-1275 was covered by the brick wall, that we see today.


CONSTRUCTION
The most outstanding feature of the market is that for the first time is that brick was used on a large scale. This method was fast and resistant and for that purpose a unique construction technique was chosen. Bricks were divided in half diagonally and then were arranged in two rows. In the middle, a mortar invented by the Romans was poured, the concrete, a mix of cement and gravel.

Image courtesy of Discovery Channel.

But the extraordinary ability of the Romans in the use of brick goes beyond its structural use, but also as an aesthetic element, using different styles for the arrangement of the masonry in the decoration of the facade.


TRAJAN'S MARKET AFTER THE EMPIRE

Following the collapse of the empire, the market was inhabited and fortified. Between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries the Castle of the Militia was built here, from which still survives the Torre delle Millizie, built in 1200.
Today you can see medieval houses added to the top floor.

The market as a fortification in medieval times , and as the Convent of Santa Catalina in more recent times.

Later a convent was built in the area, which was demolished in the early 30s to uncover the original Roman structure.


TRAJAN'S COLUMN


"When you go to the Trajan Market, don't miss the column" -a good friend told me- "and imagine that the Quirinal hill used to reach its top before its construction."

This superb column was erected by the Emperor Trajan in 114 AD to commemorate his victory over the Dacians. In fact, the impressive carvings that adorn the monument represent the emperor's military campaigns. The total length of the bas-relief is 200 m, and wraps the column 23 times.


It is impossible to appreciate the detail of the engravings to the naked eye (the column was between Ulpia Basilica and the Temple of Trajan), so that the artwork was made to be seen by the gods. After all, Trajan himself was considered one of them.


In addition, Trajan's Column stands out for its remarkable calligraphy .

The column is 30 m 8 m pedestal, and is composed of 18 blocks of marble from Carrara, 4 m and 40 tons each. It is, however a solid structure, as it has a staircase that allows access to the top.

Pedestal of Trajan's Column in a photo from 1860. Source Wikipedia.

Originally there was a statue of Trajan on its top, but in 1588 was replaced by a statue of San Pedro.


SEE ALSO
- GRECO-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy (212-17)
• Pantheon, Rome. Italy
• Roman Forum, urbanism