MY ARCHITECTURAL MOLESKINE®

GEHRY: MILLENIUM PARK, CHICAGO

2012-02-21T17:03:00.000+09:00

ESPAÑOL

Chicago, so-called the "Windy City" (I experienced the reason of that nickname when the wind broke a couple of umbrellas), is the second city in the U.S. and one of the 10 most influential cities in the world. In fact, Chicago is remembered by the labor movement that led to the Haymarket Revolt and their claim for the 8-hour day (which is why we celebrate Labor Day on May 1st). They were also famous for its gangsters duringthe 30's, the blues and the Chicago Bulls. The clear urban grid meets the Lake Michigan and is broken by the Chicago River, treasuring architectural jewels such as those of the Chicago School, the Louis Sullivan's Carson stores , Mies Van der Rohe's buildings and the Lake Shore Drive Apartments , Frank L. Wright's Robie house.

In this opportunity we will focus on the city's waterfront Development (or urban development facing water bodies), particularly on the recently remodeled or Millenium Park, located on the shores of Lake Michigan.

HISTORY

Since 1850 until recently, the Millennium Park was a site owned by the Illinois Central Railroad. In 1917 construction began on the adjacent Grant Park. Given the presence of railroad tracks and parking lots, these areas suffered from neglect and deterioration, despite the efforts of certain groups of neighbors to recover it.

Old view of Millenium Park (upper right area) divided by railways and isolated by the Columbus Highway.

Millenium Park in 1987, almost completely abandoned.
Photos courtesy of Thomas Yanul.

Millenium Park for redevelopment.

Google Earth Image

PARK RECOVERY

The idea of converting the abandoned park into a center of social and attraction near the Lake Michigan by means of art (architecture, sculpture and music) was developed in 1997 by Mayor Richard M. Daley, and acquired a significant interest due to the participation of world-renowned architect Frank O. Gehry. The construction of the park would lasted from 1998 to 2004.

Aerial view of Millennium Park after redevelopment.
Photo Wikipedia

Compositional elements

The park is divided into two areas: an area of gardens, laid out like a Cartesian arrangement, parallel to the Michigan Avenue, and the other more free, defined by a virtual elliptical "roof" and presided by Gehry's Pritzker Pavilion. The park is linked to the lake via a bridge, also designed by Gehry, that crosses over the Columbus Highway.

To solve the problem of the existing railway, it was decided that both the train yard as parking lots were to be built under the park, so the park is considered terrace-largest in the world.

The Jay Pritzker Pavilion. Frank Gehry.

Frank Gehry's sketch of Pritzker Pavilion

At a cost of $ 52 million (including 15 million to hire the architect) the most significant element of the park, and an icon that is preceived when approaching to the lake from the city, the Pritzker Pavilion bears the unmistakable stamp of the Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry .

Lateral approach to the Pritzker Pavilion
Photo C. Zeballos

Gehry, who in 1989 received the Pritzker Prize, the most prestigious architecture award, uses his well-known vocabulary of organic forms and sculptures, metal ribbons that twist like a silver cloud and that define the bandshell pavilion. With a capacity for 4000 seats and various acoustic and digital equipment, it is one of the most technologically advanced outdoor-concert halls in the world.

Imposing presence of the Pritzker Pavilion, designed by Frank Gehry.
Photo C. Zeballos

This 40 m structure is composed of series of steel plates arranged over a metallic frame, so that its imposing, cumbersome and voluptuous presence is merely a scenographically displayed facade.

Detail of the back of the Pritzker Pavilion, where the scenographical nature of this architecture can be seen.

Photo C. Zeballos

Besides the bandshell there is an expansion lawn that can host up to 7000 people, which has been covered with a metal tube frame that defines an elliptical space .

Detail of the pergola as an extension of the Pritzker Pavilion

The acoustics was developed in collaboration with the company Talaske , who first provided the conditions for the musicians to hear themselves on stage, and secondly to expand the sound to the audience with the maximum fidelity.
In that sense, the pergola has not merely a visual role but also an utilitarian purpose as it holds the speakers system that offers the audience a surround sound and the feeling of being inside a concert hall. The walls of the bandshell reverberate the sound, while a second set of speakers facing the audience spreads the sound from the stage.

Scattering of sound through the speakers in the pergola.
Image courtesy of Talaske

The bandshell is the scene of the Grant Park Music Festival, a classical music event outdoors, the only free show of its kind in the country.

Spectacular lighting effects on the Pritzker Pavilion during a night of concert.

Cloud Gate. Anish Kapoor.

This unique sculpture, popularly known as "The Bean" is a 22 m long, 14 wide and 11 high element, and despite its light appearance weighs over 100 tons. Defined by its author, the award-winning Indian sculptor Anish Kapoor, as a "gateway to Chicago, a poetic idea about the city that it reflects" the work is a sculpture made of polished steel, representing a drop of mercury that falls on the square.

Hugely popular Cloud Gate sculpture by Anish Kapoor
Photo courtesy of Peter Schulz

Cloud Gate, photo courtesy of April

The concave surface of the "Gateway to the Clouds" reflects precisely the sky and the surrounding skyscrapers, while the central concavity plays the distorted reflection of the passers-by and the surrounding environment, especially at its base or omphalos .

The Crown Fountain

Designed by Spanish artist Jaume Plensa, the fountain is composed of an interactive installation consisting of two glass brick towers, which contain computerized LEDs that produce a series of changing images, especially related to citizens of Chicago.

Crown Fountain, photo courtesy of Manuel Longo

Each of these towers is 15 meters high and 7 meters wide and 4.5 m thick. The design and construction of the sculptural group reached 17 million, 10 of which were donated by the Crown family.

When I visited the park in March 2005 they were just a couple of big screens, like huge TVs showing changing images. But in April 2006 a water fountain of 71 m x 15 m was installed and that made this sculpture much more attractive, since it interpolates water games with the graphic images displayed. An interesting effect happens in the moment when the face on the screen makes a gesture as if he were blowing and the person's mouth poured a stream of water over the fountain.

Interaction between the image and water play, photo courtesy of yewuan

Click here to see a video of the interaction of people with the fountains, which makes it very popular in summer.

Despite controversy provoked by its high cost (U.S. $ 500 million), which has tripled the original budget, in addition to having postponed its opening for 4 years (originally the Millennium Park should have been inaugurated in 2000, hence the name), Millennium Park has become the most important public space in the Chicago's lakefront, a space where people interacts with the architecture, landscape, lake, art and music.

SEE ALSO / SEE ALSO
- THEMATIC PARKS

Garden of Fine Arts, Kyoto, Japan. Tadao Ando (1990)

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES (3) ILOCOS

2012-02-17T13:15:00.001+09:00

Paoay Church. Photo courtesy of Hun Garces .

ESPAÑOL

Some of the most notable examples of colonial architecture in the Philippines are located in the provinces of Ilocos, Luzon, north of the archipelago. It is a pleasure to visit Ilocos, because of its idyllic scenery and its rich culture and history, expressed in villages of clean and tidy streets that contrast with the chaotic traffic jams in Manila.

In this post we will review two types of colonial architecture: religious, in Paoay, and civil, in Vigan.

SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH IN Paoay (1699-1702)

San Agustin Church in Paoay. Photo courtesy of Rene Stack.

One of the most conspicuous examples of the so-called earthquake baroque architecture in the Philippines, which is the Church of San Agustin in Paoay (1704-1894), declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO .

Paoay is a small village situated on a plateau, linearly organized along Marcos Avenue, which connects it with other surrounding towns.
The church nave, curiously, is oriented parallel to the main road, while preceded by a large atrium from a side street.

See location on Google Maps.

The land where it sits is sandy, so the original buildings were frequently destroyed by earthquakes. Its builders, Augustinians priests, managed to counter the seismic effects by building thick walls and massive, volute-shaped buttresses .

These sturdy buttresses are the epitome of colonial earthquake resistant architecture.

As Father Pedro Galende writes:

"The walls were made of stone called capaza, and bricks 1.67 m thick (a braza). The main nave was supported by 14 harigues (molave posts) of 60 m long (72 varas), 15 m wide (17 varas) and 7 m high (8 varas) in the transept and 5.10 m (6 varas) in the main nave. The ceiling was covered with strands of caña de Boxo, the windows had shell panes. "

The triangular façade has an affinity with the Gothic style, because of the verticality of the pilasters and the pinnacles that crown the composition, though some say that has some influence of the Buddhist monument of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.

Another feature of this and many other Philippine churches is the separation of the bell tower with respect the main structure of the church.

Paoay church, Ilocos.
It is common to find that, unlike Mexico or Peru, the bell tower is separated from the nave of the church.

"The first bell tower was built with wooden posts 3.50 m (4 varas). There were three bells. Fr Thomas Torres enlarged the tower [...] from 1753 to 1756. It was made of chopped coral stones, 12 per 16 inches thick, with molave braces put together, with the help of pulverized limestone mixed with molasses. "

The interior of the church is a nave whose coverage is supported by a collar roof structure.

Inside the church

VIGAN

Vigan, Ilocos. Typical kalesa emphasizes the old flavor of this urban space

The charming town of Vigan in Ilocos Sur, is the best preserved example of Spanish colonial architecture in Asia. Its streets laid out in a gridiron pattern, according to the Laws of the Indies, housing a collection of well preserved colonial buildings, with white walls and picturesque balconies. While some of its features will inevitably evoked the architecture of my home Arequipa, Peru , the fact is that there are differences with respect to Latin American cities, as Vigan was influenced by Chinese and Ilocano cultures.

Vigan, Ilocos. Detail of the balcony. The windows instead of glass use a translucent seashell.

Vigan, an ancient port located on an island near the Abra River, was born in 1574 as a strategic point of trade with China. The population, Chinese and Filipino, also expressed their mixture in the architectural styles, made of wood and sloping roofs, inspired by the bahay kubo, the traditional Filipino house.

Meanwhile, the Spanish preferred coral stone architecture, called bahay na bato, combined with elements of wood, mostly in the balconies and shutters.

Sometimes the first floor was made of stone upon which a wooden second floor was built.

The urban layout is similar to a checkerboard, typical of Spanish colonial cities, but has an eccentric plaza to the north, linked to a secondary square. Many of the streets maintain a compact profile with no setbacks.

See location on Google Maps

These town, however, was about to disappear during the Second World War. During the Japanese occupation, a general settled in Vigan in 1943. When in 1945 the Allies began to reconquer the Philippines, the retreating Japanese usually left the villages they had occupied in ashes. However, this general was married to a Filipina. Before escaping from town, he left his family in the church of Vigan, promising to preserve the town and not burn it down, in exchange for protection for his family. This is how Vigan survived intact to this day.

The house where the general inslaló Japanese.

Given its historical value, the quality of his factory, his urban scale and the conservation of its monuments (one of the few places not affected by war), Vigan has also been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage site . Despite being significantly marketed for tourism, is quite an experience traveling to the sleepy little streets that seem to be frozen in time, whose cobbled stone pavement resound to the clatter of horses' hooves.

Click here to see views in 360 of the Town of Vigan .

While Mexico was closely linked to the Philippines, there is also Peru's cultural influence to a lesser extent, particularly on religious issues. Peru's San Martin de Porras is one of the most popular saints in this Catholic archipelago. In addition, Santa Rosa de Lima, is "officially" the Patroness of Peru, the Americas and the Philippines.
I was very surprised when I commenting that issue with the locals, nobody seemed to know about it...

SEE ALSO

- SPANISH COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

BETWEEN MOUNTAINS AND LAKES

2012-02-06T12:25:00.000+09:00

Misti volcano, Arequipa, PERU.

Photo courtesy of Carlos Zeballos Barrios

And we got to the 100 items in My Moleskine Architectural! As on previous occasions, when they turn 50 posts , I would like to share some architectural views that I have not made much impression on the places that touched me go, or sometimes as printing more breathtaking than the buildings themselves.

The theme for today is dedicated to the mountains and lakes. The mountains have always had a mythical role as a visible link between people and land of the gods, Olympus, Sinai, Meru, Machu Picchu ... For its verticality and grandeur, have been part of a mental landscape, sacred and aesthetic that has determined the location and organization of cities, temples, buildings and environments. And while the mountains were in turn a symbol of virility, the gaps (which often accompany them) appear as feminine complement, as the mother in whose womb swarm generous living and food, which gives the liquid element for subsitencia.

Linking the two-mountain and lake-colored reflections is perpetuated in infinitely varying moods thanks to the winds and the kaleidoscopic changing of light.

The binomial mountain - lake can be explained from different perspectives: geological, painting, ritual, historical ... but let the teacher Gustavo Adolfo Becquer relate to us from the most sublime romantic view.

Taquile Island (4200 m), Lake Titicaca, PERU. We visited Taquile with students of architecture, but we had to stay on the island because of a storm was unleashed. After a dramatic sequence of lightnings, the sky cleared up to reveal the brightest starry night (I've never seen the Milky Way like that anywhere else), occasionally spotted by shooting stars that seemed to plunged into the lake ... Sometimes, the best trips are those which are not planed. Photo courtesy of Dachala

Osorno Volcano Osorno, Chile. Due to its latitude, the conical shape of the mountain is often covered with snow.

Italian Alps. Near Pisa, from the plane.
Unless otherwise indicated, all photos belong to C. Zeballos
Lake Nahuel Huapi, PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA. Breathtaking beauty of snow capped peaks, forested hills which seems to float on turquoise lakes.
Daimonji, Kyoto, Japan. One of the most symbolic mountains of Japan's ancient capital. Each year they light a giant bonfire as an offering to the dead.

SOUTH LAKES, CHILE. The slender figure of the Osorno volcano (2652 m) gracefully reflected on the lakes of the X Region in Chile
MOUNT FUJI (3.776 m), JAPAN. This sacred Mountain is the icon par excellence of the country of the rising sun, and has inspirited poems, paintings, rituals and even suicides. Photo taken from the Shinkansen bullet train.
Misti Volcano (5.821 m), Arequipa, PERU. Misti means "Lord", and this imposing volcano is the protecting symbol of this beautiful city in southern Peru. Photo courtesy of Foful

MOUNT OF GETHSEMANE, JERUSALEM. An important pilgrimage site for Christians, the famous Mount of the Olives, the place where Jesus and his disciples prayed before his capture and cruxifiction.

Two views of Chachani (6.075), Arequipa, PERU, the first courtesy of Carlos Castañeyda. The highest of the volcanoes of Arequipa, provides material for the construction of the architecture of this city, a white, porous stone called "sillar"and which some have given its name to Arequipa as "White City".

The majestic landscape of the Sierra Nevada, Granada, SPAIN, seen from the Alhambra, makes this a visual delight and a perfect integration between architecture and landscape.

Pichupichu Volcano (5664 m), Arequipa, PERU. The third volcano of Arequipa has the Salinas lagoon behind . From Arequipa, the profile of the volcano resembles a reclining person,who according to the legend is called "The Sleeping Indian." Photo courtesy of chilltravel
SLEEPING BEAUTY, Tingo Maria, PERU. On the banks of the Huallaga River, a tributary of the Amazon River, a forested mountain reveals the silhouette of a woman, the so-called "Sleeping Beauty". In its heart, the mountain houses the impressive Cave of the Owls , a geological formation full of stalactites, where nocturnal animals nest. I visited this cave in 1981 with my father when I was a kid, but despite the time passed, this place has left an indelible memory. Highly recommended. Courtesy Tingo-maría.com

Datong, Shanxi, CHINA. The spectacular statues of Buddha, carved from the mountain itself, whose sizes range from 4 cm to 7 m, date V century AD and have been declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Mount Nebo, JORDAN. This mount, that overlooks the Holy Land, is an important site for Judaism and Christianity, since according to tradition, is the place where Moses was buried..

Stunning beauty of the Mount Tronador from the Lake Todos Los Santos, CHILE. The pointed shape of the peak reverberates in the multiple folds of emerald lake.

Imposing mountain ranges, near LA PAZ, BOLIVIA. The dark mass of granite contrasts vividly with the pure white snow. In just a few hours the arid landscape of these mountains will become, thanks to colorful touches, a breathtaking mountain jungle forest environment (below).
Road to Coroico, BOLIVIA. To travel the famous Road of Death, on the way to the idyllic city of Coroico, is a brave experience. At times the road becomes so narrow that it is impossible for two cars to pass at the same time, and sometimes a waterfall jumps over the bus just to get lost into an abyss of hundreds of meters. The way back was not so funny, because a truck broke down and we had to stay several hours trapped in the jungle. Photo courtesy of Fotosaleix

Two views of Lake Biwa, JAPAN. This is the largest and most important lake in this country, and the main source of fresh water supply for cities such as Kyoto.

Lake Michigan, Chicago, USA View taken from the Sears Tower.
Lake Villarica, Chile. Near Pucon.
Srang SARS, SIAM REAP, CAMBODIA. This huge artificial lake was instrumental in the development of Khmer culture and their capital in Angkor .

THE ISLAND OF THE SUN, Lake Titicaca, BOLIVIA. Mythical place where, according to legend, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, founders of the Inca Empire, were born.

In the cater of Taal Volcano, TANGAS, PHILIPPINES. A lake that has inside a volcano that has inside a lagoon that has inside a volcano. The photo shows the smaller lagoon, and the Taal is dotted with volcanic vapors.

Lake Akan, Hokkaido, Japan. Another volcanic crater in northern Japan. Close to it the Ainu communities are located, whose race and customs are different from those of Japanese the mainland country.

Until our next 50th post ...

SEE ALSO
- SPECIAL

Ode to the Sea (Pablo Neruda) # 50

Taal volcano and lake, PHILIPPINES. Behind me, the flimsy and unsafe vessels that took us from the dock to the volcano.

LOCSIN: THE MODERN FORM IN THE PHILIPPINES

2012-01-26T21:33:00.000+09:00

Cultural Center of the Philippines, with its Christmas decorations

ESPAÑOL

Leandro V. Locsin (1928-1994) was the most important modern architect of the Philippines, the equivalent in that country of what Kenzo Tange was in Japan. Aside of being an architect, Locsin was an interior designer, artist and musician, and in 1990 was entitled as National Artist of the Philippines by the recently defunct President Corazon Aquino, in addition to receiving the Asian Culture Award in Fukuoka.

I could only visit little of his extensive work, but I was impressed by his skill in the use of concrete and the cleanliness and strength of the volumes, which appear to be levitating while, at the same time, providing a sense of massiveness and lightness to his buildings. Many more advanced studies, however, have analyzed the important link between the work of Locsin and the traditional Filipino architecture.

Benedictine Monastery of the Transfiguration. Malaybalay, Bukidnon, posthumous building, 1996.

In this entry will present two of his most representative works.

CHURCH OF THE HOLY SACRIFICE

Locsin's first work in 1955, was a church (ironically, his last work was also a chapel, located in Malaybalay shown above), the church of the Holy Sacrifice, at the University of the Philippines, Manila (although originally designed for the Victorias Milling Co. in Negros Occidental, Locsin's home town).

Church of the Holy Sacrifice. See location in Google Maps.

It is a circular church, the first of its kind in the Philippines. The altar is in the middle of the floor, an idea which Locsin corrected in later churches, since it was not very appropriate to the rite of the Catholic mass.

Graphics courtesy of Caryn Paredes-Santillan

The main feature in the church is a large concrete dome, located on transparent walls and supported on pillars on the sides of the church, that people have dubbed the "flying saucer", somehow emphasizing the lightness of the form.

Some researchers have emphasized the parallel between this conception and the pre Hispanic architecture in the Philippines, especially in the bahay kubo, houses with sloping thatched roofs and light walls erected on wooden poles.

The dome is slightly separated from the inclined columns, emphasizing the sensation of floating and allowing more light to interior, which is complemented by a circular skylight at the top of the dome.

The architect Caryn Paredes-Santillan, presented at the II International Conference on Architecture and Phenomenology, a study of the manifestations of liminality in the churches of Locsin. Liminality is a concept used in semiotics to define an intermediate state between two areas, often characterized by its ambiguity and its complementarity with two spaces.

Paredes-Santillan distinguishes in her analysis of several churches by Locsin, three types of space: the primary spaces (main functions of the building, like the altar), secondary spaces (auxiliary areas, such as the baptistery, choir, confessional) and liminal spaces, connecting these two kinds, which are "psychological barriers that delineate the different degrees of integration within a space and serve as a rite of passage between the exterior and interior."

To this end Locsin uses some techniques as surrounding a space by another space, the separation of the roofs and the use of light.

Paving designed by Arturo Luz

Aside of Locsin, the design of the church had the assistance of other leading professionals, the floor was designed by Arturo Luz, the Stations of the Cross by Vicente Manansala and Ang Kiukok, and the double crucifix and the base of the altar by Napoleon Abueva, all now recognized as National Artists.

Altar and double crucufix (showing Jesus died and rose) designed by Napoleon Abueva

CULTURAL CENTER OF THE PHILIPPINES

The CCP or Sentrong Pangkultura ng Pilipinas is the most recognized work by Locsin, completed in 1969 during the government of Ferdinand Marcos. In fact, his work focused mainly on the Performing Arts Theatre.

Old view of Manila Bay, with the CCP at the background.

The CCP is located on the waterfront, in an area of 77 hectares reclaimed to Manila Bay. During my visit a project to recover the riverfront was undertaken, which had been abandoned for decades and was being converted into an interesting center of social exchange. The CCP is the starting point of this long boulevard.

The idea was to make this complex the artistic Mecca of Asia, and for that purpose it houses four theaters, a museum of ethnography, galleries and a library of art and culture.

The main theater is comprised of a huge concrete block covered in marble that forms the facade of the building and protrudes 12 meters thanks to the powerful arched columns that give the impression that this block is floating.

The building is accessed from two ramps which converge at the center of the facade, an idea that has been used by Locsin in some of his works.

Fountains were placed in front of the block, which allows an interesting perception of the building at night.

Gerard Lico, in his book "Power, Myth and Marcos State Architecture" has criticized the monumentality of this complex as a waste, whose primary purpose was to serve as propaganda and demonstrate the power of the dictator. Similarly, many Latin American dictatorships at that time, also chose grandiose works to signify their power and the vision of the nation, so that Marcos probably used this monument as a mask to hide the corruption problems that afflicted its mandate.

While many people worship him in Ilocos Norte (I had the opportunity to see his embalmed body, but he looked to me like a wax statue), but there are many others who blame the huge external debt that his government left, as well as his many eccentricities that Filipinos still have to pay. After all, after the war, the U.S. plan was to turn the Philippines into Asia's new leader, instead of Japan. What happened?

Interior of the building. Detail of the ceiling, courtesy of elzhear

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES (2). INTRAMUROS.

2012-01-23T20:12:00.003+09:00

Photo courtesy of eazy traveler .

ESPAÑOL

I walk the streets of Intramuros and feel a sense of deja-vu, of delicious familiarity. I was surprised when one of my friends invited me a chicharron, a dish that reminds me of that of my land (although here this crunchy fried pork rind is called Tsitsaron ). The landscape around me makes me refer to colonial images of Arequipa, Peru , Antigua in Guatemala or Mexico .

Interior courtyards and houses in Intramuros

Church of St. Augustine.

It is no coincidence. Intramuros was founded on the basis of an ancient Tagalog settlement, at the confluence of the Manila Bay and the Pasig River, by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1571, who had arrived from Mexico to the island of Cebu , then head toward the north to get to this place.

Intramuros, Manila. See location in Google Maps.

Intramuros was the capital of the new Spanish colony of the "Felipinas" islands and was a key point on the trade route between Asia and America (Manila and Acapulco) that by means of galleons, realized the dream of Columbus that Spain could reach the West Indies. And while the Americas benefited from products such as mango, silk, paper, envelopes and Manila shawls, Filipinos also received a major Latin American influence, in terms of food products, religion, art, mestizo architecture (of course, in the language as well. A plethora of Spanish words that are included in the modern Filipino language, there are some of Aztec origin, such as Nanay -mom-or, Tatay- dad).

The name of Intramuros evokes the idea of an isolated area, protected from urban sprawl and housing historical treasures within itself, but also gives the idea of protection against attacks by pirates or invaders (in this case Chinese, Dutch and English).

Remains of bastions and fortifications

But Intramuros also involved social exclusion, the separation between those who were inside the walls (white and mestizos) of those natives who lived outside them. It appears however, that in the mid-nineteenth century this characteristic was dissolved into a more inclusive society for people of all races and social strata, as a British traveler tells of the time recorded.

Filipino mestizas in the late nineteenth

Intramuros fortification was designed as a trapezoidal layout, located on a wedge formed by the sea and the Pasig River (now the land reclamation difficults that reading). Inside the walls there is a rectangular gridiron, which included the main square, surrounded by the major powers of the time: the cathedral, the prison the house of the governor. In that sense, Intramuros is similar to other fortified cities in Latin America, such as Lima , for example.

Intramuros in 1784.

Intramuros in the seventeenth century, showing the surrounding area or "extramuros"

Besides the cathedral, the city was dotted with the towers of churches from other congregations, such as Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians.

The Cathedral before 1945

Views of the Cathedral

The streets, like other Hispanic colonial cities, have compact profiles, with no setbacks or front gardens but with balconies and arcades, whose townscape had changed over the years due to successive disasters that devastated the city.

However, the buildings are arranged around courtyards and cloisters, allowing light and ventilation to indoor environments, generating a microclimate and providing an internal social and functional space.

The city is surrounded by fortifications, carried out throughout centuries, and gates, artistically decorated as in the case of the Parian Gate or the Real Gate.

Parian Gate.

Real Gate in 1899.

Video of Intramuros in the Spanish era

Jose Rizal, maximum hero of the Philippine independence, was arrested and shot at Fort Santiago in Intramuros. Before dying, he wrote his immortal poem " My Last Farewell".

Intramuros remained intact until the colonization of the Philippines by the U.S. which conducted widening of streets and gates.

The following video shows the effects of modernization during the American colonization, which transformed to Manila from a "sleepy Spanish village" to a strategic city in Asia, thanks to urban renewal, implementation of services and infrastructure as well as economic development. The documentary says nothing, however, that the colonization took place after a shameful betrayal by the U.S. the Filipinos and the Filipino-American War of Independence took between 200,000 and 1.4 million deaths (that's why I insist that we should always hear both sides of the story).

But I would not be the Americans but the Japanese who cause most damage to Intramuros and Manila in general. After the bombing of Pearl Harbour, and in retaliation after an American response, Japan invaded the Philippines (it was actually the pretext that they were expecting). Manila, which was under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, surrendered promptly to avoid the destruction of its historical heritage and loss of lives.

- "Are you going to leave Manila, Douglas?"
- "Do not worry, Carlos. I'll move to Australia for a while, but I shall return."

, A Japanese soldier hides among the shadows of the fortress.

In the 3 ½ years that lasted the brutal Japanese occupation, between 1 and 2 million Filipinos were killed. In their final battle against the Americans (who, in one of those twists and turns of history, became the liberators of the Philippines), the Japanese did not hesitate to kill through the bayonet to the local population, including children and pregnant women, and to set Manila on fire during their withdrawal .

Note: This historical video contains scenes that may impact the susceptibility of some readers.

As a result of the crossfire between the two sides, Intramuros was devastated and all its structures destroyed, except for the Church of St. Augustine. In the Battle of Manila alone more than 100,000 Filipino civilians were killed.

- "That is equal to the deaths by the bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki" an old guide said to me on a terrible and not so accurate comparison , but it reflects the deep pain of that experience he had in his own flesh and has accompanied him throughout his life.

Intramuros, Manila in 1932, before its destruction in 1945

Photo courtesy of DebraEve

Today, much of the Citadel has been rebuilt (incidentally, with the help of Spanish American and Japanese cooperation) although it is one of the monuments in the list of endangered heritage by UNESCO. Intramuros is not a depressing, tragic memorial as it is, for example, the island of Corregidor. By contrast, it exudes joy, festivity and frenzy, and while some foreigners are playing golf in the course around the monument, many locals express in their boisterous and extroverted character an optimism for better times. I am aware, however, that this place is not merely historical site, is a symbol of the tenacity and sacrifice of the Filipinos to achieve independence, who finally succeeded in 1946.

SEE ALSO

- SPANISH COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

To thank you very much for your kind company Visayas in Intramuros.

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES (1).

2012-01-18T22:01:00.000+09:00

ESPAÑOL

The Philippines is a unique country in Asia, due to its culture, food, religion and of course, its architectural heritage. Being there, I felt closer to Latin America than to Southeast Asia where it is geographically located, since the Filipino cultural landscape is far from traditional Buddhist wooden constructions with pitched roofs and big eaves, as seen from Taiwan to Korea, from Thailand to Japan.

The tropical mestizo heritage of the Philippines, home to many artistic and architectural jewels of universal value, was the result of the originality of the Filipinos to innovate styles and building systems based on materials available in their midst, and on the other hand, of the ineffable imprint left by more than 3 centuries of the Spanish colonization in this archipelago. The most curious aspect, however, is that colonial architectural influence did not come directly from the Iberian Peninsula (to which the ships took two years to arrive), but rather from the American colonies, particularly from Mexico and to a lesser degree, Peru.

The following entries will explore some features and notable examples of colonial architecture in the Philippines, seen through the eyes of a Latin American, hoping that might be of interest and reference for discussion about the cultures of Spanish influence. This first post includes an introduction to the main features of Philippine colonial architecture and two examples of unique churches in Asia.

Colonial house in Bohol

PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE CHARACTERISTICS

The cross and the sword governed the destiny of this country for 400 years. Missionaries from various congregations were given the task of building temples, monasteries and convents. However, there are some features that were particular to this process:

Cloister of the Convent Santo Niño, Cebu
Photo courtesy of Pierre Marius

1) Indirect link with Spain: The far distance in the Iberian country prompted the colonization of the Philippines was made from North and South America.
2) Mestizo Architecture. The natives were skilled in the art of building with bamboo and wood, but they did not know how to use stone for construction purposes. To this end, Chinese and even Muslims buiders were summoned, imprinting Arab influences in some churches in Cebu and Manila, using native materials such as coral and devising constructive techniques to counter the devastation of typhoons and earthquakes.

3) Juxtaposition of styles. Given scarce resources, and to the successive calamities, collapsed buildings were not demolished, but rebuilt upon their foundations or walls.

Church in Ilocos

CEBU AND THE FIRST CHURCH OF ASIA

Background

With Malay, Indonesian and Chinese influence, the native people of this archipelago had a first contact with the West when Ferdinand Magellan landed on these shores, during his expedition around the world. In my childhood I had heard the story of this brave Portuguese sailor, who could not complete his circumnavigation around the world because he was killed by savages on the island of Cebu.

This time, however, I heard the Filipino version (it's always interesting to hear both sides of a story), about the brave chief Lapu Lapu, who in 1521 fought the invaders who had claimed his land for the King of Spain, thus becoming the first Filipino hero.

Statue of Lapu Lapu in Manila

But before that skirmish, the Spanish had been kindly received by the natives, and indeed, they managed to celebrate the first Mass in the history of Asia, around a cross planted by Magellan himself (now the Filipinos commemorate the introduction of Christianity to the archipelago at the "Cross of Magellan," which marks the site of that first ceremony).

Magellan's Cross: Allegory of the cross planted by the navigator and the first Mass celebrated in this territory.

It was there that it occurred to him that he had to evangelize the inhabitants of this land by any means, beginning with its rulers, Rajah Hubanon and his wife. He gave them an image of the Child Jesus, called Santo Niño. He then attempted to convert Lapu Lapu, Hubanon's rival, and his refusal the European decided to attack him. Bad idea. Magellan and his group were massacred and the religious statue was taken as a trophy.

43 years later, Lopez de Legazpi arrived from Mexico and began the conquest of the archipelago (named as "Felipinas Islands" in honor of King Philip II). He was surprised to found the image of Santo Niño, which is was a bit damaged, but it was revered by the natives as a local deity. That was the beginning of the city of Cebu, the colonization of the Philippines, the evangelism of Asia and the church and convent of Santo Niño.

Philippine girl carrying an image of Santo Niño, the country's religious icon.
Photo courtesy of Victor Bautista .

The original church was founded by Augustinian Father Andres de Urdaneta in 1565 and was simply made of earth, wood and straw. After a series of fires and earthquakes the present church was made of white stone, between 1734 and 1739.

The complex of Santo Niño consists of church and convent. The main entrance is located in the longest side of the building, which differs from most churches. This circumstance gives an imposing presence to its facade, which can be seen from a public space that precedes it.

As noted by Father Peter G. Galende, in his detailed compendium "Angels of Stone. Augustinian Churches in the Philippines".

The facade of the church of Santo Niño represents a blending of Muslim, Romanesque and neo-classical features, all set in what has otherwise been described a high degree of integration.
The facade, following Classical pattern, is divided into two levels. Shallow pilasters divide each story into three segments. The bell tower serves as a counterbalance to the convent located on the opposite far end. A triangular pediment crowns the solid, but not massive facade.

The focus of attention is on the center section. The trefoil arched main entrance is balanced by the side rectangular statued shallow niches. The vertical composition is echoed by the small design of the second level above the cornice, trefoil arch, the pediment and the side scroll-like ornament, a facade within a facade. A double edged pediment crowns the facade.

The rectangular shallow niches of the lower level are counterbalanced by semicircular arched windows on the second.

The bell tower has two blind and open windows alternating in shape, ending up in triangular pinnacles with a circular disc crowned by a balustrade and a bulbous dome of Muslim influence.

Photo courtesy of ronrag .

The facade is preserved in its original stone texture and natural color . It conveys an air of simplicity and elegance, the lines are neatly drawn and projecting pilasters kept shallow to the maximum. The graceful trefoil arch, the dignified embellishments and the generally flat perspective create a sense of serenity and elegance. "

Interior of the Church

Besides its historical value, this place has an remarkable symbolic value and is the center of the most important pilgrimage in the country.

The celebration of the Santo Nino is the largest in the country.
Photo courtesy of Jessle Cuizon .

SAN SEBASTIAN, THE ONLY METAL CHURCH IN ASIA.

n Sebastian, Manila. Recollect Church assembled in steel.

In the aftermath of the colonial era, in 1891, in Manila was erected the Basilica of San Sebastian, built in Neo Gothic style and notable for being the only church built in steel and metal in Asia, although some people consider it unique in the world . For this reason, it is included in the tentative list of UNESCO.

The first church erected in this place was built in the seventeenth century, made of wood and burned in 1651. The structure later was made of a brick that was destroyed by the earthquake of 1859.

This basilica has not an atrium or a square in front of it, as in many other cases of colonial churches. However, it is placed at an important node and its height allows it to have a strong presence in the skyline.

The peculiarity of this church it that it was designed by Gustave Eiffel's company in France and the steel parts were manufactured in Binche Belgium. Even the windows were imported from Germany, made by the Henri Oidtmann Company. The elements were assembled in just two years, between 1888 and 1890. It was finally inaugurated in 1891.

The church of San Sebastián during construction. Journal of Pubic Works. 1897.

The symmetrical facade is composed of two towers flanking the main entrance, which is highlighted by a central rosette.

In the transept is placed a octagonal dome, which allows light to enter into the church.

Photo courtesy of Sinchibukai .
Photo courtesy of steadfast .

The church is one of the few structures that survived intact to the battle of Manila.

Manila was devastated by the Japanese in 1945. Photo courtesy of John T. Pilot .

However, San Sebastián church remained intact. Photo courtesy of Debra Eve .

I think that, unlike other churches in the Philippines, San Sebastian has a European design, which was transported and erected to another continent. It is, however, a unique example in this place of a particular technology that symbolized the commitment to technology and economy without sacrificing the aesthetic values of an era.

SEE ALSO
- SPANISH COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE

Church and cloister of La Compañía, Arequipa, Peru (1578-1619).

TODAI JI TEMPLE: THE GREAT BUDDHA OF NARA

2012-01-12T20:48:00.004+09:00

ESPAÑOL

Before the eighth century AD, the capitals in Japan were temporary settlements that used to be were transferred after the death of the emperor. After Buddhism was introduced to Japan and as a sign of the power of Yamato clan, the first major was founded in 710capital under the name of Heijo-kyou (the castle-capital of Peace) by Emperor Shomu, until in 794, when it was moved to Kyoto. Heijo-kyo, which was founded in the likeness of the Chinese capital of Ch'ang , occuping an area of 5.9 km from east to west and 4.8 km from south to north, and hosted a number of important buildings for the court and religious elite.

Layout of the ancient capital Heijo-kyou

That city, now called Nara (200.000 inhabitants), is a small but pleasant town, with parks and temples, surrounded by forested mountains and crossed by two rivers.

Its most famous treasure is the Todai-ji, the Great Temple of the East, which is the world's largest single wooden roof structure, that houses the largest statue of Buddha made of bronze in the planet.

Todai-ji temple.

See location on Google Maps.

Before arriving at the Todai-ji, we went through a large park populated by deer. Legend says that many deities traveled mounted on white deer, so these animals are revered as divine messengers and bearers of good luck.

The Todai-ji is placed, according to Feng Shui or Chinese geomancy, north of the complex. The complex, begun in 745 by Emperor Shomu, consists of several structures.

Old perspective showing the Todai-ji temple.
Source: Nara Prefecture Library.

Reconstruction of the original temple in the period Heijo kyou, between two pagodas.
Source: Introduction to Japanese Architecture. Drawing: Tan Hong Yew.

NANDAI-MON (GREAT SOUTH GATE)

This majestic portico, 20 m high, dates from 1199 and is used to enter the compound, separating it from the worldly life. It leads to a processional access to a courtyard, which used to receivethousands of pilgrims and Buddhist monks. The original porch was made in Indian style, and this 2/3 version of the original dates from 962, after the original was partially destroyed by a typhoon.

I've always found fascinating the way these huge wooden structures are assembled in a building system which is as effective as intricate. The technique, imported from China, has evolved with differences depending on the time and place where it was applied, but mantaining the samebasic essence.

In the case of the Nandai mon, the 6 x 3 columns structure rests on stone bases, without foundation. These piles are joint through a mesh of wooden beams. The eaves system is based on pieces of wood that are assembled like a puzzle, allowing the roof to be separated from the structure by several meters. It also allows the corners to achieve a slight curvature, characteristic of pagodas, especially in China.

The following video shows an animation of this construction system.

Naidaimon or Great South Gate.
Animation Carlos Zeballos

After passing through the portico, we found the Kairo, a road which is in also the symmetry axis of the complex. To the right of the Kairo is a pond, as it was customary to place a pond south of the temples.

Chuu-Mon (Central Gateway)

Aligned to the Kairo is the mon Chuu, the central portal which precedes a more private domain of the temple. On each side of this gate, there are large wooden figures representing the kings of protecting the temple, as it was in the case of the Nandai-mon.

Aerial view of the Todai-ji

BIG LANTERN

Between the Central Gate and the temple itself, aligned with the Kairo, there is a large octagonal, almost 5 meters high lantern, that was made of bronze in 752, with engravings representing divine beings such as lions and playing musical instruments.

Daibutsu Den

In the middle of the courtyard stands the imposing main temple, the Daibutsuden. This huge wooden structure (56 * 50 * 50 m) houses the statue of Buddha.

The huge image is 15 m high (the tallest indoor Buddha statue in the world) and it was originally covered with gold by Emperor Shomu. Unfortunately, fires, earthquakes and other disasters removed the golden layer, also damaging parts of the original structure.

The statue sits in a mudra position, with his right hand raised, which means he has the power to grant wishes. The hand is so big that five monks can stand on it. Accompanying the Buddha, there are huge images of other deities and protector kings .

In the back of the temple one of the columns contains a hole about 50 cm. which is about the same size of the nostril of a statue of Buddha. The Japanese believe that if one is able to cross the column through that hole, he/she has a guaranteed place in heaven of Buddha, and for that reason many people try to pass across it. It is not uncommon to see someone trapped in the middle of the column, getting aid by some generous volunteers who would try to pull you out (as it was my case). At least I am saved from hell...

Leaving the Daibutsuden, is the spire that used to crowned an ancient pagoda, showing close a delicate work of art that is meant to be seen only by the gods.

Nearby, in a temple called Shoru, is one of Japan's oldest bells, cast in bronze. The great bell of nearly 5 m (which unlike the West is tolled by a large bamboo on the side) produces a deep sound and can be heard from great distances.

The important historical legacy of this ancient capital, considered a UNESCO World Heritage Site, can be seen in many other areas in Nara, which I hope to comment on other future occasions. Until then.

SEE ALSO

JAPANESE TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

MY SON IN VIETNAM

2012-01-09T21:23:00.003+09:00

Champa complex of My Son in Vietnam. Phots courtesy of Global Citizen .

ESPAÑOL

"I Left My Son, Abandoned In The Middle Of Nowhere" I wrote on my Facebook status, to the dismay of my friends. In fact, the "My Son"I was talking about is an archaeological site of Hindu architecture in the middle of the Vietnamese jungle, which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . Its dilapidated condition, due to the passage of time and particularly to the ferocious U.S. bombing during the war, has left little to see for visitors, especially if compared My Son to other monumental sites in this part of the world. However, during a visit to this ancient capital of the Champa kingdom, it became clear the stylistic relationship to other similar complexes in Indochina, and the important influence of Hindu art and architecture, before Buddhism became prevalent in this part of Asia .

CHAM AND INFLUENCE THE HINDU

The Chams were an ethnic group of fishermen and farmers who flourished in Vietnam from the second to seventeenth century. The Cham created the Champa civilization and shared historical ties as well as conflicts with other cultures around the Mekong River . In addition, the civilizations of the Indochina Peninsula received important Hindu influence, as expressed in the art and architecture of the area. My Son precedes in time and shares characteristics to those structures such as Prambanang in Indonesia, Ayutthaya in Thailand, Angkor in Cambodia and Bagan in Burma (Myanmar). Even in Buddhist structures like Borobudur in Java, Indonesia maintained features of Hindu architecture (curiously, Buddhism would eventually prevail in the entire area, except for Indonesia which is mainly Muslim). According to UNESCO, My Son would have been a center of cultural exchange and the place where Hindu architecture was introduced to Southeast Asia.

Left: the Champa Kingdom maritime trade with other civilizations in the region. Above, VII to IX century. Below, tenth to thirteenth centuries.
Right: Hindu complexes in Southeast Asia.

Some common features between My Son and other Hindu sites are, for example, the presence of towers of complex roofs and pyramidal shape; the presence of linga, phallic sculptures that represent fertility and are also associated with good harvests and the presence of representations of the gods Shiva, Vishnu and Ganisha, among other deities of the Hindu pantheon.

LOCATION OF MY SON

It takes more than an hour to get to My Son, located about 70 km from Da Nang in central Vietnam. On the way, I find it hard to imagine the reason for choosing this site in the middle of jungle to a city building. However, a panoramic look gave evidence of a special configuration of the place.

My Son is located near a river, in a circular valley, a sort of "nest" of mountains, one of which stands to the southwest.

I wonder if the choice of location would have been some kind of relationship with the Chinese geomancy or Feng Shui , which is known to chose this type of configurations to facilitate the flow of positive energy in the city, or if that mountain would have symbolized the mythical Mount Meru, the axis of Hindu cosmogony.

While I have not found literature to confirm these hypotheses, in any case, I suspect that the site configuration must have had an important role, both symbolically and defensively, especially considering that My Son was the religious and intellectual center of the Champa kingdom.

My Son in 1938, before the U.S. bombing.

FEATURES

The Citadel of My son was developed in several stages over the centuries, and is composed of several different towers surrounded by auxiliary buildings.

Evolution of the set of My Son towers between the seventh and thirteenth centuries. Image taken from the site museum.

Basically My Son consists of 68 towers arranged in several groups of buildings, set on both banks of the river, delimited by rectangular compounds with a predominantly east-west orientation. These complexes were presided by a main temple called Kalan and surrounded by smaller shrines and bounded by low walls.

The first buildings were made of wood, but a series of fires forced to replace it with brick and sandstone. By using this material, Cham towers became more monumental and resistant. The roofs may be flat or in the shape of ogival pyramids. Their height varies, may be up to 24 m.

Hypothetical reconstruction and current status of one of the towers.
Images taken at the museum.

Unlike the western vaults, the ogivall "vaults" were built by overlapping rows of bricks that were gradually having a setback to converge at the top. The interior of the same was hollow, because it represented a cave or a womb.

Their layout is generally square, although there are also some of rectangular base. The entrance gate was oriented towards the east, which is the direction of sunrise, the point where the cosmic movement starts.

Art and style of the pillars at the entrance of temples.

Andrew Hardy, Mario Cucarzi and others argued that, according to the architectural concepts of Hinduism, the Champa Kalan were composed of three parts:
a) The foundations of the temple, symbolizing the world.
b) The body of the temple, symbolizing the spiritual world of the faithful, the place where they were purified by contact with their ancestors and gods.
c) The roof of the temple, representing the world of the gods, the place where the gods reside.

Balusters, in different styles, are common in the architecture of this part of the world, from Angkor Wat in Cambodia to Luang Prabang in Laos .

The bricks that make up the buildings measure 31 cm x 17 cm x 5 cm and were placed without mortar. However, according L. Binda, P. Condoleo and others (2006), the cham used a special resin obtained from dau rai trees.

These wedges were carved in the stone pillars to increase resistance and stability.

Besides, the towers were decorated with floral, plants, animals and humans Hindu style.

Among the most important elements there were some fountains called yoni-linga, which were the representation of sacred genitals, representing the union of the Shakti and Shiva gods.

It is likely that some of the yoni-lingas and / or sculptures of deities have been venerated in a ritual space defined under wooden structures mounted on stone bases.

However, in this tower, instead of lingas there are bombs that were dropped by American B-52s but did not explode, and are a testimony of those terrible memories of the war, which are present throughout the country. Interestingly, today the bombs are rather used as bells.

SEE ALSO

- HINDU ARCHITECTURE

Coming soon

HA LONG BAY, VIETNAM

2012-01-03T20:30:00.000+09:00

ESPAÑOL

This non-architectural post is dedicated to Ha Long Bay (or Halong) in Vietnam, a landscape that, due to the symbolic value that it has for its people is probably the most renown in Vietnam, but also because of its unique geological and geomorphological structure has been considered a World Natural Heritage site by UNESCO, and chosen one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature.

Photo courtesy of Grumsysumpy

Ha Long means "descending Dragon" because, according to legend, a group of dragons descended from heaven as a gift from the gods to the ancient Vietnamese people, in order to help them fight their enemies. Those dragons spat out jewels and jade, which eventually became rock thousands that populated the bay. In addition, the larger islands are no others than the petrified family of dragons.

There are actually similar formations in other areas of the region, and the first time I saw emerging vertical rocks as if they were floating on the water was in Phi Phi Islands, Thailand. There are also other examples in the Philippines, China and Okinawa, Japan. But nowhere in the world there is the same number and density as in Vietnam.

There are over 3000 rock formations, vertical and giant moles whose chromatic tones are diluted until they seem to vanish in the haze of the horizon.

Photo courtesy of fallroad

Some of the rocks acquire peculiar forms, such as the so-callede Fighting Cocks. Photo courtesy of Ha Long Travel.

Also, part of the landscape are the fishing vessels, conducted by fishermen wearing the typical conical straw hats, although it is true that there are also many boats dedicated to "fishing" tourists.

Photo courtesy of jmboer

In addition to the magic that this scene conveys, in many cases the action of the sea and the elements has been eviscerated the inside of these rocks, producing impressive caves, dramatic geological formations which appear to have been carefully sculpted.

The following is a slideshow of our visit to Ha Long Bay.

I take this opportunity to wish you a prosperous 2012 and to thank you for your kind read.

SEE ALSO
- SPECIAL.

Ode to the sea

A GLANCE AT VERUCCHIO, ITALY

2011-12-29T17:18:00.002+09:00

ESPAÑOL

Verucchio is a small medieval village perched on a cliff located in the province of Emilia Romagna, and demonstrates the ability of Italians to model the landscape. The Fortess Malatesta and the town around her are so rooted in the rock formation of the which they seem to emerge, as the territory is rooted in the psyche of its inhabitants. One can tell why the Italian word paese (village) shares the same root with the word paesaggio (landscape).

Castello di Verucchio. Photo courtesy of Maurizz .

Verucchio is a medieval village that stands on a cliff 330 m above sea level, dominating an agricultural plain crossed by the Marecchia river (a curious name from the river, which means "small sea" and stresses its importance for navigation) . From there to the southeast, you can see the towers of San Marino, the smallest and oldest republic in the world, which is located just 12 km from Verucchio.

To the north, you can enjoy magnificent views of the coast of Rimini, bathed by the Adriatic Sea. These geographical qualities gave Verucchio its name, which comes from "verrucula", which in Latin means "little wart", a metaphor that contrasts the shape of the promontory with the plain that surrounds it: the "land of Rome" or Romania, which later became Romagna.

See location in Google Maps .

While this is a medieval city, archaeologists have found traces of pre-Roman settlements from the tenth to the seventh century BC, that demonstrate the important role that Verucchio had during the Iron Age as a meeting point between cultures from the Adriatic, the Orient and Central Europe.

Verucchio is a typical medieval burgo, whose streets are arranged organically, adapting to the topography, and lead to an elongated square called Piazza Malatesta. On one side stands the City Hall, a neoclassical building erected in 1895 to replace an old structure. The arches on the first level afford more space to the square, while offering protection from extreme heat and rain.

Also important are some religious structures such as the Church of Suffragio and neoclassical Collegiata (1864-74), both facing each other perpendicularly, and spatially linked through two separate courts.

However, the city's main landmark is the Malatesta Fortress, also called "Fortress of the rock." Because of its structure, materials, morphology and color, the stronghold seems to be an extension of the rock that supports it.

Between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries this Romanesque fortress was developed as the bastion of the Malatestas, an infamous family of condottieri (mercenaries) who had control of the Emilia Romagna province. Dante Alighieri, in his famous work "The Divine Comedy", depicted one of the infernos with the case of Giacionto Malatesta, who killed his wife Francesca and her lover Paolo, after founding them in-fraganti commiting adultery (of course, in Dante's version, the punished ones in hell are the lovers, not the murderer).

La Rocca Malatesta. Photo courtesy of Riviera di Rimini .

The complex, built in the fifteenth century on the remains of a thirteenth-century fortress, is composed of a series of rooms arranged around an oblong space dominated by a watchtower.

Also noteworthy is the Great Hall, which holds the Malatesta family tree. It is a rectangular room, topped by a roof of wooden beams.

This stronghold was impregnable for centuries, to the point that it could only be conquered in 1462 by Federico Montefeltro, using a deception similar to that of the Trojan Horse.

Federico Montefeltro is this man that Piero de la Francesca portrayed as one of the emblematic examples of Renaissance painting (1465-1466). The particular shape of his nose is because, after losing an eye in a tournament, he had his nose "operated" in order to expand his range of vision. The other side of the face was horribly deformed.

But, aside from these architectural features and interesting buildings, what most impressed me about Verucchio was the way how all the different components of this village were so smoothly and aesthetically articulated, despite coming from different times and belonging to different styles.

The harmonius dialogue of materials (brick, stone, tiles) are coupled with the balance between built elements and open spaces, cleverly arranged to allow a glimpse views of the surrounding landscape (we've seen a similar case in the city of Siena ).

The built and empty areas are interspersed to allow permeability between the landscape and the urban space.

This delicate balance is both topological, ie allowing foster relationships between components of a place, and topophilical, ie, expressing the intimate bonds between people and the environment.

Perhaps the reader will ask "all this is beautiful, pleasant to the eyes of a tourist, but it must be difficult to live here, far from the amenities and services of modern life." However, the harmonic balance is not only aesthetic but economic and productive. The old town of Verucchio is linked with the new town, which accounts for most services and contemporary buildings.

Planners have had the good sense not to stifle the historical village with a modern growing city but to separate the two settlements by rural areas, avoiding the old city to turn into a museum mummy, but to create a polycentric urban area to supplement the cultural, historical, economic and productive aspects of the territory.

"What makes a good landscape? I confess I do not know. How did they made the landscape of the Italian hills, wooded and planted at the same time? How did they put towers on ridges and fields on the hillsides, villages on the steeper slopes and protected areas on the edges of rivers and streams, in the high forests in the tops of the mountains?
The crucial issue is that this landscape is not natural. It is absolutely fatto dalla mano degli uomini [made by the hand of men], as a famous brand that Italy coined years ago."
Ruben Pesci, Ambitectura

Verucchio. Watercolor by Carlos O. Zeballos Barrios.

THE CATACOMBS OF SAINT CALLISTUS, ROME

2011-12-24T16:40:00.000+09:00

Crypt of St. Cecilia in the Catacombs of San Callisto.

ESPAÑOL

Today is December 24, the tenth month, and here in Rome, many are preparing for tomorrow's festivities . However, for us, a community of fellow Christians, today is a sad day. Our brother is dead, a martyr of our faith and we will bury him in the underground tombs on the outskirts of the city. Because, unlike the pagans who cremate their dead, we Christians buried ours, because we believe in the resurrection of the dead and the coming of our Lord. Yesterday a Greek Christian was telling me about a new idea advocated by his group or sector [sect]: that we all have a soul, a psyche, and if we will fulfill the Word we will go to "Heaven". I did not quite understand that idea, I just know that we will rise and inhabit the Kingdom of our Lord, who is soon to come.

A Nabataean merchant coming from Petra was surprised:
- "Why do you Christians gather in these 'catacombs'?" - he asked me in his bad Latin. "Could it be that you fear that the will Romans persecute you and kill you?"
- "No." I answered, "The 'cata tumbas' or 'among the tombs' are cemeteries. Although occasionally we carry out celebrations and processions there, these galleries are too dark and the smell of bodies is sometimes unbearable. And they are not secret, they are next to the Appian Way which is a very busy road, everyone knows they are there. "
- "But why you have built them?"
- "The reason is because it is not allowed to bury bodies within the city, and as we Christians are poor or slaves, we have no money for sarcophagi or mausoleums, and therefore we are buried in these galleries."
- But making these tunnels is not more expensive?
- No, the underground soil is soft [volcanic tufa] - and there are many people dedicated to this task [fossores].
- "And how many catacombs are there in Rome?"
- "I would say some 50. There are other underground galleries for Jews and poor Romans."

Scheme of the catacombs around the Appian Way

I get distracted thinking that although Christianity is now permitted, many Romans discriminate against us because of our social status and our customs. For example, we do not usually attend the public baths, nor we go to the Coliseum, like them. They consider us dirty, annoying and fanatical. We just want to show them the true faith, but while there are not many large-scale persecutions as before, there is often friction, assault and even murder, as happened to our brother.

I say goodbye to my Nabatean friend and I join the small funeral procession. After passing the Aurelian Walls , recently built to replace the old Servian walls , we move along the magnificent Via Appia, which reaches Calabria. On the way we met with merchants, travelers, and a group of Legionnaires, which is logical since this straight paved road was built mainly for military purposes.

Aurelian Walls, built from 271 AD

Appian Way

Roman countryside

To the sides numerous statues, memorials, and monuments, adorn the road. One of the most impressive is the tomb of Cecilia Metella , a cylindrical structure located on a promontory overlooking the Roman countryside, sometimes crossed by rows of cypresses.

Tomb of Cecilia Metella, next to the Appian Way

But we will not reach there, my fellow martyr will be buried in the galleries of St. Callistus, which are about a mile and a half from the walls [one mile amounted to a thousand steps, ie 1.48 km].

See location on Google Maps

St. Callistus was a Pope who died for their faith, the first Martyr Pope after St. Peter .

The area of St Callistus has two parts: the cemetery of Callistus itself and the Crypts of Lucina, which consists of two galleries connected by an underground passage.

Catacombs of San Callisto around 200 AD (left) and after expansion in 220 AD
A and B are the original galleries. C. Cubicle Orpheus. D. Crypt of the Popes. E. Sacramental Chapels. Source: Early Christian Art and Architecture. Robert Milburn.

The construction process of the galleries is very interesting. First they laid on a plot already designated as cemetery [often belonging to a Christian family or given away to the Christians as a gift]. From the surface, stairs were cut to give way to two horizontal tunnels [ambulatory], about 4 pedis wide[1 meter; 1 Roman foot = 29.6 cm] for about 5 or 6 cubitus high- [2.5 meters; 1 cubit = 44.3 cm]. Rows of niches [loculi] are arranged on the sides of the galleries, sealed with slabs of marble or terracotta.

Loculi

When the space is filled, then new stairs are created and they dig a new level. When there are enough niches, they excavate a third level, and so on. The galleries are reinforced with arches and vaults, to prevent landslides. It is preferable to dig more levels rather than making more niches per level, to avoid the risk of collapse. [St Callistus reached 7 levels and 23 m depth]. For this reason, the oldest graves are in the upper levels, while the newest ones are at the deepest levels.

Schematic section of the catacombs

But our brother will not be buried in a niche. He died as a martyr and therefore he will be buried in a chamber [cubiculum]. The chambers have a small retirement and are built under an arch. They belong to wealthy families or are reserved for martyrs. The chambers are then coated with plaster and painted. Some lucky ones are buried radially around the martyrs [retro sanctos] ... I would like to have that privilege. Other types of tombs are curved niches [arcosolium] and frescoed chapels [crypt].

Cubiculum

Arcosolium

There are several rooms that are really beautiful. The Crypt of the Bishops Martyrs [now known as the Crypt of the Popes] is where they buried the bishops of Rome and is formed by a large vault.

Crypt of the Popes

Another beautiful crypt is that of St. Cecilia, another martyr of our times that lies buried here.

Crypt of St. Cecilia. Her remains were transferred in 820 to the basilica that bears her name. The statue is a replica of a baroque sculpture by Stefano Maderno (1636)

Inside, many Christian artists have decorated the walls with representations of Jesus and other related topics. The Jews bitterly accuse us of idolatry, since their religion, from which ours was originated, prohibits human representations. But, what I can say? We are Romans, the art is in our blood and this is the way to express our faith. Of course, we are not as skilled as those pagan artists that decorate the homes of the rich people. We are humble people with little education, but we do our best in these difficult lighting conditions.

Representation of the multiplication of the loaves.

However, some artists who often decorated villas with figures of Apollo, now, after their conversion, they do the same figures representing Jesus.
Other representations are more symbolic: the alpha and omega [Alpha A / α and Omega Ω / ω are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet] represent the beginning and the end; the Chi Rho with the first letters of the name of Christ [the Monogram of Christ is formed by the Greek letters X (chi) and P (rho), the first two characters of the word Χριστός (Christos, "The Anointed One")] and the fish, which in Greek is ΙΧΘΥΣ and is a symbol used in times of persecution [ICTYS stands for "Iesus Christos Soter Yios Teo," which means "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior."]

Chi Rho

And that is because the most spoken language among Christians is Greek, not Latin [the ancient gospels and the epistles of Paul were written in Greek, as well as the first New Testament officially accepted by the Council of Nicea (325 AD). St. Jerome would be the first to translate the Bible into Latin, in 405, from the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem ].

At the lowest level there is complete darkness, barely lit up by the torches. To be among the tombs gives me mixed feelings: on one hand, I dread the darkness as, when I was younger, I was lost for several hours in this absolute blackness, surrounded only by the eerie silence of death.

However, when I come here with my brothers, I have the feeling of actually being in community, away from the ridicule and criticism from the pagans. Some brothers come to visit relatives, the martyrs and saints, and they even organize commemorative meal [refrigeria].

Our brother rests now in peace and he will be among the first to be resurrected when the Kingdom of Our Lord comes to us. On the way back to Rome we met many people who is going to town for the festivities. Today is the shortest day of the year and tomorrow, December 25th, will be as if the sun had been born again, so that the pagans will be given to big events in the festival of Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the "Birth Day of the Invincible Sun." But for us Christians, this date represents the Birth Day of Christ, the Invincible.

***

Note: this is not a blog about religion and the purpose of this post is not necessarily apostolic. The idea is, based on historical data, to propose a review of an architectural monument in the way a Roman Christian would narrate it in the late third century.
I would like to take this opportunity to wish you happy holidays and much success for the coming year.

Sources:
- Early Christian art and architecture. Robert Milburn
- Wikipedia and various websites.
- Visit to the Catacombs of San Callisto, Rome. March 2, 2006.

SEE ALSO
- Early Christian Architecture

Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, Palestine

The Catacombs of Saint Callistus are one of those places that convey spirituality beyond a particular religion. Christians of all denominations, Muslims, Jews and non-believers visit them each year.
Along with Jan, Hugo and Arnel (who took the photo) during our visit.

THE ROMAN COLOSSEUM

2011-12-19T17:21:00.001+09:00

Photo courtesy of Stuck in customs

ESPAÑOL

The Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Roman Colosseum is the most conspicuous building in the Italian capital. It is one of those buildings that became symbols of a city and even a country. It is the most remarkable urban landmark from ancient Rome, visible from anywhere in the eternal city's monumental zone (although it appeared suddenly to us as we approached from the Esquiline Hill, and we were amazed by its monumentality).

Burning Rom (e). Photo courtesy of Alena Romanenko

This UNESCO World Heritage site was chosen as one of the New 7 Wonders of the world, perhaps not only because of the monument itself, but as a way to pay homage the Roman contribution to Western civilization. It was a center devoted to recreation and death, but it was primarily a effective form of political propaganda and social control of the population.

BACKGROUND.

In 66 AD a revolt broke out in Judea against the Roman tyranny. Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian to subjugated it (some time before, Nero had Vespasian exiled for falling asleep in one of the insufferable performances of the emperor-artist). In 68, Nero was declared an enemy of the empire because of the abusive and unpopular taxes that he imposed to Rome, and as a result he killed himself. The political crisis that followed his death saw three emperors in one year, until the Senate looked for a respectable figure to lead the empire. Vespasian then left his son Titus in charge of the war against the Jews and took over as emperor, not by right of blood but by his great skills as a general, founding the Flavian dynasty, which gave its name to the Amphitheatre.

In taking power, Vespasian found a discontented and unemployed population, and decided to build a majestic venue to keep people entertained and away from possible riots. Faced with a nearly bankrupt state and wanting to avoid raising taxes (which had led to the debacle of Nero), Vespasian used the treasures of the Temple of Jerusalem (who had finally fallen to Titus in 70) and the huge revenues from the sale of Jewish citizens as slaves in order to finance its amphitheater.

Model of the Temple of Jerusalem, whose treasures were used for the construction of the Colosseum.
The temple was sacked by the Romans before its destruction in 70 AD

LOCATION

In a small valley between the Palatine, Esquiline and Celio hills, Nero had built a luxurious private palace, the Domus Aurea ("Golden House"), presided by a 36 meter statue of the emperor himself and an exquisite artificial lake.

Rome before the creation of the Colosseum. The Domus Aurea and the Colossus of Nero was placed in front of an emperor's private lake.

Imperial Rome, the Colosseum and the forums built. Both maps are not in the same orientation. For reference please place both at the Circus Maximus

The Colosseum and Rome today.
See location on Google Maps

In 71 AD Vespasian planned to give that space back to the people and ordered the construction of the amphitheater that site. The lake was then drained towards the Tiber River and canals were built surrounding the area in order to divert the superficial water and rainwater. The statue of Nero, however, was kept, and the amphitheater was called the Colosseum because of its proximity to that colossal statue.

The proximity to the Colossus of Nero gave its name to the Colosseum.

However, Vespasian did not live to see his work completed. After his death in 79 AD, his son Titus came to power and finished its construction in 80 AD. It is said that on the opening day 5000 animals were sacrificed for the bloody shows. Imagine the slaughter of animals brought from all over the empire when the opening games were extended for 100 days. Some even claim that occasionally the arena was flooded with water and that sea battles took place, but some scholars have questioned this claim for lack of impermeable archaeological remains .

According to the poet Marcial and the historian Suetonius the arena of the Colosseum was sometimes flooded and representations naval battles were shown.

DESIGN

The Greeks defined their theaters based on a semicircular shape with their seats arrayed facing a stage. This form that was also appropriated by the Romans and disseminated throughout the Empire; however the amphitheater is a Roman invention consisting of a circular, oval or elliptical set of stands arranged around an arena.

This formal dissimilarity also involved a distinct use by a different audience. Theaters in Rome were used for plays, attended by a cultured elite. Amphitheaters were more likely to sports or fighting, and were favorites of various social strata, including slaves. In fact, one could say that the Flavian Amphitheatre represented, in its differentiated bleachers, the stratified Roman society: the imperial family was in a privileged position, then came the senators, aristocrats, soldiers, the people, slaves and, in a farer location, women.

Model of Imperial Rome Colosseum.

The oval layout measured 188 meters in its longest axis and 155 in the shortest. The arena measured 83 meters in its longest axis and 48 in the shortest.

The original design of Vespasian included three rows of semicircular arches, supported by Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns respectively.

The lower arches were made of stone, while the second and third series of arches were made of brick and concrete. They were decorated with fine marble, statues and frescoes on the walls.

Reconstruction of the facade of the Colosseum. The marble-coated arches housed monumental statues.

The study of visibility allowed all spectators to have a good overview of the games. The visual angle of the stands was varied from 30° to 35° as they were gaining height.

To facilitate the rapid evacuation of the 50,000 spectators 76 entries were implemented . The entrance of the Emperor was burred underground, communicating directly the Colosseum with the palace.

Later, in 90 AD, the emperor Domitian, Vespasian's second son, made a series of renovations to the monument in order to make it appear more imposing, to enhance its capacity and comfort and made it more affordable for most spectacular battles.

Domitian, included a brick and concrete gallery above the arches, after which the Coliseum reached a height of 50 meters.

Addition of Domitian on top the arches built by Vespasian. Photo courtesy of Mimmo photophilic

This attic also held the huge tents called "velarium", which served to protect spectators from rain or the extreme solar radiation in summer, and were operated by a thousand sailors.

Reconstruction of the Velarium.

Below the arena he ordered to install a hypogeum, a labyrinth that housed cages with animals, ramps and lifts for gladiators, which allowed the rapid entry of these in the arena, and also facilitated the rapid removal of dead animals and humans bodies. Covering the hypogeum was a wooden deck that has not preserved.

Views of the Hypogeum. Photos courtesy of Chodaboy

Reconstruction of the Hypogeum.

CONSTRUCTION

The Colosseum perfected and used several innovative construction elements, that have been used for many centuries, some of them are even today.

While the arch was invented in Mesopotamia and used in Egypt and Greece among others (though usually on a smaller scale and underground drains) it was the Romans who developed and enhanced its use to a monumental level. The arch is based on a simple principle: the loads are transmitted through the rocks that form it (voussoirs) to the pillars that support it, and it holds its shape without falling due to the pressure of a center wedge called keystone .

The 80 arches of 7 meters tall that make up each of the 3 floors of the venue could simultaneously cover a great height, holding a heavy load while affording lightness to the building.

Photo courtesy of Rodrigo Larrabure

Inside, the arches are connected by another invention perfected by the Romans, the vault. The vaults generate wide, solid and elegant spaces.

Standardization of elements such as bricks, stonework and the arches themselves, allowed the construction of these repetitive elements in mass, at high speed and without the need of a very specialized labor.

Among the materials that were improved and used on a large scale include:

- Concrete, which allowed the mortar to achieve a stone-like strength, mixing volcanic ash, lime and water. It was also very malleable. By adding pumice the concrete was lighten and the ashes brought from Pozzuoli, near Mount Vesuvius, were able to provide waterproof characteristics, calling it "Pozzolanic".

-Red brick. While terracotta (terra cotta in Latin means "baked earth") had been used before by the Romans to make tiles, since the Coliseum brick started to be used in the walls and vaults

DECLINE

The games in the Coliseum continued until at least 523, long after the fall of Rome. However, the amphitheater was gradually abandoned and used for other purposes. The central arena was used as a cemetery, and the interior of the stands was transformed into housing and workshops, at least until the late twelfth century.

Medieval drawing of the Colosseum in 1469

Map of Medieval Rome

In 1200 the Colosseum was fortified, being used as a castle. In 1349 the southern end of the amphitheater collapsed because of an earthquake, and the materials were reused in the reconstruction of many other buildings in Rome.
A religious order moved into the northern sector of the Coliseum and remained there until the late nineteenth century.

Piranese Gianbattista Drawings, 1772

Due to the growing vandalism that was eating away at the monument, Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the Colosseum as a place where many Christians were killed, prohibiting its use as a quarry (despite the fact that there are no evidence of massacres of Christians on a large scale in the Amphitheatre). Inside the Coliseum marble slabs detailing the restoration work carried out by various popes can be seen.

In 1807 and to solve the danger of collapse of the facade, the triangular wall we see today was built.

The Coliseum as a sacred place. Photo of the late nineteenth

In 1930 Benito Mussolini had the hypogeum excavated and left it exposed. In addition, he enhanced Amphitheatre from an urban point of view: he created a roundabout circling the Colosseum and connected it to the monument to Victor Emmanuel II through a wide avenue called Via dell'Impero (now Via del Fori Imperiali).

Before and after the creation of the Via dell'Impero by Mussolini in 1932.
The Duce wanted to return to the glory days of the Roman Empire.

In 1995 a complete restoration of the Coliseum was undertook, making it 80% accessible to the public.

INFLUENCE

The Colosseum has had an undeniable influence on the design of stadiums and sports infrastructure through the centuries and even today its basic principles of composition are repeated around the world. In the case of HispanAmerica the Coliseum has a much closer relative, both in its form and function as well as for the type of bloody shows that take place inside: the bullring.

Malaga Bullring
****

The epic film Gladiator (2000) contains so many fallacies and historical inaccuracies that is more a Hollywood fantasy than an academic document. However, the recreation of the Coliseum in Rome in the middle of a vibrant crowd is indeed very impressive.

THE AGORA OF ATHENS VS. THE ROMAN FORUM

2011-12-13T21:23:00.003+09:00

ESPAÑOL

"The Greek agora establishes a formal typology, the Roman Forum defines the symbolism of the square as a center of an architecture and a society essentially urban. While the Greek agora contributed to giving the citizen self-consciousness, the Roman Forum made him aware of the state. "
Juan Carlos Pérgolis in his book "The Plaza. The center of the City"

It is inevitable to establish a parallel between the agora , the public space developed by the Athenians, and the Roman Forum. In fact, it is possible that the Roman space received influences from its Greek equivalent, a theory reinforced by the fact that in Etruscan cities (that preceded the Romans) no traces of a similar public space have been found. After all, the Agora was, as the forum, the most important public space in the city, where people would gather to discuss important aspects of their community.

Aerial view of Roman Forum

In terms of their relationship with the landscape, it is possible to establish similarities between the Athenian agora and the Republican forum. Both areas were located on flat land near or surrounded by hills (the forum was built on a drained swamp), and the way buildings are crammed into the original forum around the Capitoline Hill evoke the urban arrangement of structures around the the Aeropagus hill in the early agora. It should be noted, however, the imposing presence of the Acropolis, a visual and symbolic landmark -with no equivalent in Rome- that influenced the layout of the circulation and the use of public space in Athens.

Drawing of the Agora with the Acropolis in the background

In later stages the Imperial Forums became more defined, geometric, and enclosed, forming a series of separate spaces. This geometric rationality is also observable in forums of Roman cities such as Gerash and Caesarea, or Romanized cities, like Petra. I wonder if the construction of Odeion of Agrippa in the center of the agora would have been an attempt by the Empire to define the urban space that would appear too "open" for Roman eyes.

Odeion of Agrippa in Athens

In general, the old Roman forum shared with the Greek agora a commercial character, later adding civic, religious and even recreational activities, as eventually games were held in Rome during the Republic.

Monumental space in the Roman Forum

However, particularly in the imperial period, Roman Forum area evolved as a space for celebration and commemoration, both functional and symbolic terms, hence the monumental size of the structures. The forum turned into a stunning space for imperial power propaganda , and for this reason the commercial functions were relegated to a sector of it. Similarly, in Athens, the Romans forbade the market in the original agora, creating the so-called "Roman agora" for commercial purposes.

Roman Agora in Athens. In the background, the Acropolis

Religious buildings are also located in both the agora and the forum, serving a variety of symbolic functions.The Temple of Hephaestus , the god of the forge and anvil, presided over the agora in Athens, while in Rome, Minerva, patroness of the arts and crafts, was honored the Forum of Nerva. But the difference is noticeable in the scale of these religious buildings, being the Roman version the most monumental.

There are also architectural differences between the temples of the agora and the forum, although the Greek influence is evident in Roman buildings. However, while the Athenians placed the temple of Hephaestus on a krepidoma or platform which could be accessed from either side, as it was usual in Greek temples, in the Roman case there was only a frontal access through a staircase, leading to the temple placed on a much higher and more prominent pedestal .

Temple of Hephaestus, Agora

Temple of Antonio and Faustina in the Roman Forum,

In fact, although both spaces appear as the heart of their cities, their scale, formal, spatial and functional differences clearly express the kind of society they represented. These differences are evident not only between the agora and the forum, but in the evolution of the Republican forum to the Imperial Forums.

Finally, there is greater complexity in the development of the forum that in the case of the agora, expressed in the spatial distribution (sequence of squares and cloisters), the conformation of the building fabric (with types such as the basilica, for example), the landscaping of the urban space (including commemorative items such as arches and columns), the use of materials (like brick and concrete) and building techniques (such as the arch and the vault).

We should not forget, however, the great influence that the Greeks exerted over the Romans, both by the cultural concepts inherited by the latter as for the participation of numerous Greek architects and builders in the development of several Roman buildings and monuments.

TRAJAN'S MARKET, ROME

2011-12-12T12:16:00.001+09:00

ESPAÑOL

Close to the Imperial Forums stands Trajan's Market, a fine example of the aesthetic, functional and constructive Roman genius, particularly regarding the use of brick. The first "shopping mall" in history is located next to the Forum of Trajan, housing more than 150 stores at different levels and with terraces overlooking the forum.

BACKGROUND

As we saw in a previous post, one of the functions that originated the Roman Forum was trade. Then, little by little the Imperial Forums were assuming the civic and memorial role, and therefore commerce was relegated to a few stores in the Basilica Emilia and Julia.

Trajan saw the need for a building that would specialize in the sale of products and decided to build it next to the majestic forum where he was revered as a deity. However, the lack of space available would require a major excavation on the slope of the Quirinal.

Trajan's Market in Roman times

Trajan's Market today.

DESIGN

The project for the market was commissioned by the emperor to Apollodorus of Damascus, his favorite architect and partner in his military campaigns (when he was commissioned to build the bridges). This brilliant architect would also be responsible for the construction of the Trajan's Forum itself. The prestige of Apollodorus did not stop with the death of his friend the Emperor, and he would continue working with Adrian for the design and construction of the Pantheon (it is said that it was Adriano who had Apollodorus killed for contravening his ideas).

During our visit, excavations were being conducted in the Forum of Trajan. In the background, the market.

The market was built between 100 and 110 AD following a semicircular layout, responding to the shape of the Basilica Ulpia's exedra which stood in front. The complex was developed on six levels, linked by lateral stairs.

Cross-section

The three lower levels facing the forum, were used for the sale of food products in stands called tabernae.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

It also comprised various zones, which meet specific functions. The following description is based on the official site of Trajan's Market .

a) Great Semi-Circle. b) Small Hemicycle. c) Forward Halls. d) Via Biberatica.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

a) Greater Semi-Circle

It was the area that was closer to the Forum of Trajan, so that the masonry and decoration were carefully worked.
As previously said, its semicircular shape echoes the layout of the exedra that stood in front, but it also had a structural purpose, as it better contained the load of the hill.
As the building was ascending in height, the rooms were going deeper into the hillside.

Eleven small rooms with vaults are located at the first level. Frescoes can be seen in the walls and black and white tiles covered the floor.
The second level has a semicircular corridor covered by a barrel vault, with windows to the facade.
The third floor has a service corridor open to the Biberatica street and an internal mezzanine.

b) Small Hemicycle

It is a three-story semicircular structure, located behind the northern hall.
In the first level the shops are organized along a semicircular hall, which did not received sunlight.
The second level, which was at the same height as the via Biberatica, was also organized along a semicircular corridor and received generous lighting.
The third level has rooms that open onto a hallway originally covered.

c) Forward Halls

Two halls of flat facade, covered by a dome split in half. Both originally had a central door, but now one of them the door is walled up.

d) Via Biberatica

It is a street paved with basalt, which connected both lower and higher sections of the complex and follows the semicircular shape of the urban layout.
At the end of the road stands an arch that is also the south buttress of the Central Body.

The upper floors were used for offices, the Great Hall and the Central Body.

Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body. f) Great Hall. g) Milizie Garden.
Images courtesy of Museums in Commune. Click on the image to enlarge.

e) Central Body

It has three floors with tabernae open to the via Biberatica.
On the first floor plant the spaces are irregular, and culminate in a room covered by a semi semicircular dome. Notice that this floor is semi buried at the same level of the Via Biberatica.
The second floor has a room in the form of apse and some decorated rooms of irregular shape.
The third level repeats the distribution of the rooms, but with less ornamentation.

Great Hall

This large space (32 x 8 m) is flanked by vaulted rooms on three levels.
On the first floor these areas bordered the hall, while in the second floor they were opened up onto corridors with pilasters. On the west side (valley), the first level rooms were adjacent to the via Bibarática. On the eastern side (Monte), a third level with interconnected areas, was accessible from the staircase serving the upper floors.

g) Milizie Garden

Located upon the Central Corps and the Great Hall is a road paved with slabs of basalt. La Torre delle Milizie was the result of several buildings constructed between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Between 1150-1200, a palace with a loggia on arches reused Roman structures, between 1200-1250 a corner of the loggia was occupied by a high tower, which from 1250-1275 was covered by the brick wall, that we see today.

CONSTRUCTION
The most outstanding feature of the market is that for the first time is that brick was used on a large scale. This method was fast and resistant and for that purpose a unique construction technique was chosen. Bricks were divided in half diagonally and then were arranged in two rows. In the middle, a mortar invented by the Romans was poured, the concrete, a mix of cement and gravel.

Image courtesy of Discovery Channel.

But the extraordinary ability of the Romans in the use of brick goes beyond its structural use, but also as an aesthetic element, using different styles for the arrangement of the masonry in the decoration of the facade.

TRAJAN'S MARKET AFTER THE EMPIRE

Following the collapse of the empire, the market was inhabited and fortified. Between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries the Castle of the Militia was built here, from which still survives the Torre delle Millizie, built in 1200.
Today you can see medieval houses added to the top floor.

The market as a fortification in medieval times , and as the Convent of Santa Catalina in more recent times.

Later a convent was built in the area, which was demolished in the early 30s to uncover the original Roman structure.

TRAJAN'S COLUMN

"When you go to the Trajan Market, don't miss the column" -a good friend told me- "and imagine that the Quirinal hill used to reach its top before its construction."

This superb column was erected by the Emperor Trajan in 114 AD to commemorate his victory over the Dacians. In fact, the impressive carvings that adorn the monument represent the emperor's military campaigns. The total length of the bas-relief is 200 m, and wraps the column 23 times.

It is impossible to appreciate the detail of the engravings to the naked eye (the column was between Ulpia Basilica and the Temple of Trajan), so that the artwork was made to be seen by the gods. After all, Trajan himself was considered one of them.

In addition, Trajan's Column stands out for its remarkable calligraphy .

The column is 30 m 8 m pedestal, and is composed of 18 blocks of marble from Carrara, 4 m and 40 tons each. It is, however a solid structure, as it has a staircase that allows access to the top.

Pedestal of Trajan's Column in a photo from 1860. Source Wikipedia.

Originally there was a statue of Trajan on its top, but in 1588 was replaced by a statue of San Pedro.

SEE ALSO
- GRECO-ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

THE AGORA OF ATHENS, ARCHITECTURE

2011-12-05T14:36:00.007+09:00

ESPAÑOL

In the previous post we reviewed the historical process of urban formation of the Athenian Agora. This time we will discuss 4 representative buildings of different historical periods, and that still remain in some extent to this day. These are: Temple of Hephaestus (classical times,) the Stoa of Attalus (Hellenistic period), the Odeion of Agrippa (Roman period) and the Church of the Holy Apostles (Byzantine period).

Temple of Hephaestus or Hephaesteion (449-415 BC)

Despite being the oldest building that remains in the agora, built in the second half of the fifth century BC, the Hephaesteion is the best preserved Doric temple in all mainland Greece.

Its location on top the hillock Kolonos Agorarios gives a privileged vista of the complex, while standing out above the skyline of the agora.

It was dedicated to Hephaestus, god of fire and the forge (whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan) and Athena, goddess of arts and crafts. Hence, near the temple there were several shops devoted to the manufacture of metal objects.
The temple, of 31.8 m x 13.7 m, consists of a pronaos or portico preceding a central cella from east to west and surrounded by a Doric colonnade of 6 lateral columns and 13 in the front side (counting twice the columns in the corners).

Original layout of the Temple of Hephaestus and after conversion into a church.

As it is known, Doric columns have no bases (rely directly on the stylobate , the third of three steps that make up the krepidoma or platform on which the temple stands).

Its shaft is fluted and robust, wider at the bottom and is comprised of various drum-like pieces that perfectly strung together.

Its capital is simple, consisting of three parts: a collar, an echinus (an inverted flattened hemisphere) and an abacus (a flat box). Interestingly, for the researcher Dr. Robert Garland, it was the Doric order and not the Corinthian then one which came from Corinth.

The entablatures are decorated with war motifs: on the eastern side Heracles is represented and the western side corresponds to Theseus. For this reason, for many centuries it was thought that this would be the temple dedicated to the latter, and it was called Theseion, when the actual location of the agora was still unknown.

There is also evidence that the temple would have been surrounded by gardens, probably during the Hellenistic period.

Later in the seventh century the temple became the church of Saint George Akamates (and that is the reason for its excellent state of preservation), to which an apse was added later on the east side (where the Sun rises, and for that reason the altar was placed here), and a transept. However, the mythological figures were mutilated, with the exception of a Minotaur in the south that has kept his head. The church was demolished in order to appreciate the original temple.

STOA OF ATTALOS

The stoas are the quintessential Greek civic buildings. Business functions accommodated and provided a key element for the Mediterranean climate: protection against the hot sun in summer and rain in the winter.

This Stoa, of 115 m x 20 m, was located defining the eastern edge of the agora. It was made by King Attalus II of Pergamon (158-138 BC), who studied in Athens and, to pay homage to the city he loved, he built it a "mall".

The building followed the typical pattern of the stoa: a row 42 commercial stands preceeded by a double Doric and Ionic colonnade, supporting a wooden roof. The same pattern was repeated in a second level. The colonnade provided ventilation and shade to the rooms, without depriving them of sufficient lighting.

White Pentelic and blue Hymettian marble was used, along with limestone for the walls. Also Sunsequently in Roman times, the floor that connected to the adjacent Roman Agora was also covered in marble the.

The building remained in existence for several centuries, until it was partially destroyed by the Heruli in 267 AD. It was completely restored between 1953-57 by the Society for American Archaeology (whom we owe the discovery of the agora and the systematic surveys and excavations for more than 75 years). The restoration included a basement for storage, a museum on the first level and offices and workshops in the second floor.

ODEION OF AGRIPPA

Located in the center of the public space, this great concert hall or oideion was a gift of Agrippa to the Athenians, a general and nephew of the Emperor Augustus, who also built the original Pantheon in Rome.

The Odeion, built in 15 BC was a huge two-story structure with capacity for 1000 spectators and had an orchestra made of marble and a raised stage. It is surrounded on three sides by a cryptoporticus (an underground colonnade), upon which small stoas were located.

Left: original plant Odeion of Agrippa. Right: additions during the late Roman period (fifth century AD), when it became part of a palace complex.

Section

However, the building collapsed near 150 AD due to the long span of the auditorium (25 m) but was rebuilt as a lecture hall for 500 seats, with a north face more elaborate than before, including pillars with sculptures of giants (men with snake tail) and tritons (fish-tailed men), figures that have survived until today.

CHURCH OF THE HOLY APOSTLES

This is a small, well preserved church dating from around 1000 AD, and given its age and excellent state of preservation, it was decided to restore it (unlike other recent churches that used to stand on the ground of the agora, which were demolished during the excavations).

The original layout follows the pattern of a Greek cross, in which its four arms are basically the same size (unlike the Roman cross layout of other European churches, where one arm extends considerably more than the other three). However, this layout has unique characteristics, since each side ends in a semicircular apse.

The central dome is supported by four central columns.
The exterior walls are adorned with a decorative brick called " Kufic ".

Meanwhile, the interior is decorated with frescoes dating from the seventeenth century.

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In the next post we will discuss some comparisons between the Roman Forum and the Athenian agora.

SEE ALSO
- CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

Holding my breath in front of the Hephaesteion.

THE AGORA OF ATHENS, URBANISM

2011-11-30T18:48:00.006+09:00

ESPAÑOL

The Greek Agora is the most ancient referent of the western public space, along with the Roman Forum, the predecessor of our squares. It was both a market, the seat of government, a center of worship, a workspace and a venue for entertainment. But more than that, it was the birthplace of democracy (though exercised only by free men) and the space where wise intellectuals such as Socrates, Plato, Euripides, Sophocles, etc., so influential in the development of our civilization, discussed their ideas.

However, the Agora of Athens was not a rigid space and changed throughout more than 5000 years of history, particularly under the influence of the Hellenistic and Roman times. Over the centuries it was covered by earth and invaded by houses and churches, to the point that until 1930 no one knew where the Athenian agora really was located.

We'll divide this post into two parts: one dealing with the historical urban development of the Athenian Agora and the second focused on the architecture of its most notable buildings still visible. Finally, we will dedicate a post to make a comparison between the Greek agora and the Roman Forum.

LOCATION
The Agora is located in an area that gradually slopes upward to the south.

Notably, the Agora was a sacred space and therefore perfectly defined by milestones or horos , with the inscription "I am the limit of the agora." Its sacred character prevented some people from entering this space, like children, wicked criminals or outsiders .

See location on Google Maps

It is impossible to define the agora without referring also to the surrounding landscape. The space interacts with two hills that stand in the middle of flat relief. The closest is the Areopagus, Aerios pagos or the "Hill of Ares" where the Council used to meet, and from where St. Paul gave a rousing speech. But undoubtedly the most prominent landscape feature was the Acropolis (lit. "over the city"), to which I hope to focus in a future post. Furthermore, next to the Agora is a promontory called Kolonos Agoraios, where the temple to Hephaestus is located.

Overview of the agora, with the Milky Panatea that crosses and sacred hills: Areopagus and Acropolis.

The intense relationship between the Agora and the Acropolis was not just visual, which is in itself quite intense as the Parthenon is seen at all times from everywhere, but also functional: the space was crossed diagonally by a road called Panathenaic Way, which joined the Acropolis to the Dypilon Gate, located on the northwest edge of town. Besides being a place where shows, games and races were carried out, the Panathenaic Way was also the beginning of a processional ascent to the Acropolis.

1. Acropolis. 2. Areopagus. 3. Pnyx. 4. Eleusinion. 5. Southeast Fountain House. 6. Imprisonment. 7. Roman Agora. 8. Pantainos Library. 9. Aiakeion. 10. Southwest Fountain House. 11. Middle Stoa. 12. Odeion of Agrippa. 13. Stoa of Attalus. 14. Library of Hadrian. 15. Bema Monument. 16. Tholos. 17. Monument to the Heroes Epona. 18. Metroon. 19. Bouleuterion. 20. Temple of Hephaestus. 21. Panathenaic Way. 22. Temple of Ares. 23. Patroos Temple of Apollo. 24. Arsenal. 25. Stoa of Zeus. 26. Altar of 12 Gods. 27. Royal Stoa. 28. Poikile Stoa. 29. Sanctuary of Aphrodite. 30. Street of the Kerameikos.

HISTORY
The land occupied by the Agora had had a symbolic meaning since prehistoric times until after the fall of the Roman Empire.

Neolithic - Bronze Age (3200 BC - 1100 BC)
The earliest evidence of occupation of the area dates from the Neolithic period, around 3000 BC, corresponding to some wells in which ceramics had been found.
In the Mycenaean period (1600-1100 BC), the Greek Bronze Age, several burial chambers were found in the area where the Agora would later develop, as well as near the Areopagus hill. At the end of this period houses began to be built.

Archaic Period (700-480 BC)
During the 6th century BC a series of political events demanded the creation of a public space, and for that regard the state expropriated this area for the creation of the Agora (which means "assembly" or "open space"). The houses located here were demolished and the area was the subject of intense landscape beautification, including the development of the Panatheaic Way where games started to be celebrated.

The spatial configuration at this time was not well defined. The first public buildings faced west, attached to the Kolonos Agoraios Hill but without any particular order, and before them stood a large open plaza.

These buildings include:
The Pritanikon, an irregular building, consisting of several rooms arranged around a courtyard with columns.

The temple of Patroos Apollo, a small temple of 16 x 10 m, presided by Ionic columns and destroyed by the Persians in 480/479 BC

The Altar of the Twelve Gods (near 520 BC), located at the northwest corner. The latter was a simple rectangular building, open on two ends and with an altar in its center. Symbolically it was referred to as the center of the city, the point from all distances to Athens were "measured" from.

Subsequently, after the democratic government was instituted, some other buildings were erected:

The Old Bouleuterion, which was the headquarters of the Citizens Council (Boule), and later was expanded to become the Metroon, the temple of the Mother of the Gods.

Basileia Stoa or Royal Stoa, the headquarters of the king (who more than a monarch was a religious authority), also in the northwest corner, a small building in comparison to what would become in later times.

The stoas were simple public buildings, rectangular in shape, consisting of a wooden covered space and preceded by a colonnade that provided an area for protection against the sun.

Classic Period (480-323 BC)
The reconstruction after the Persian defeat led to the development of many buildings that consolidated the western and southern edges, forming a triangular space bounded by the Panathenaic Way. Two stoas were built, one to the west dedicated to the god Zeus and the other to the south. The most important building at the time was the temple of Hephaestus, standing on the hill and we will discuss in more detail in the next post.

Other notable buildings are:

New Bouleuterion
At least 500 people were chosen to participate in the assembly or ekklesia (from which the word "ecclesiastic"or "related to the church" derives). To this end, in a building 50 m long, an amphitheater was inscribed. The entrance, defined by an Ionic colonnade, was located perpendicular to the nave, and led to a cloister surrounded by columns.

Tholos
It is the only circular building across the agora and was the seat of the prytaneis or executive committee of the Boule, used primarily as a banquet room. Built in 470 BC, it was a cylinder with 6 interior columns and a conical roof covered with terracotta tiles in a diamond shape.

Monument to the Eponym Heroes: Built at the end of the V century BC, it was a sculpture of particular importance, representing the members who gave their names to the 10 tribes of Athens .

View of the Monument to the Heroes Epona. Behind you see the Metroon and Tholos.

Hellenistic period (323-86 BC)
The Agora achieved a great development, although the Greeks were dominated by the Macedonians. Its enclosure becomes spatially defined due to the construction of the Stoa of Attalus to the east (that I will mention in the next post), the consolidation of the Metroon (150 BC) to the west and a new stoa to the south, defining a small internal square. When this space is defined, the agora becomes monumental.

South Square: this oblong courtyard was used as a commercial market. It was defined by two elongated stoas:

The Middle Stoa, located on the north, 147m long by 17.5 wide (160 BC) and the South Stoa II (ca. 150 BC), which was located parallel to the Middle Stoa, replacing a former South Stoa I built in classical times.

The square was flanked on one side by the east building and to the west by the Aiakeion, a building dating from the Mycenaean era.

ROMAN TIMES
In 86 BC the general Silla took Athens, destroying or damaging several buildings in the agora, particularly the South Plaza. During the reign of Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) the Agora of Athens was rebuilt as a center of imperial cult. Since then, business were not allowed anymore in its precincts and commerce was moved to a nearby "Roman Agora."

At this time, major facilities continued to be built and they occupied a prominent position in the urban space, perhaps to demonstrate the Roman imperial power.

Oideion Agrippa (15 BC), also known as the Theatre of Agrippa, was a large and luxurious structure, designed for music performances, located in the center of the space of the agora and that we will see in more detail in the next post.

Pantainos Library (100 AD): Dedicated to Emperor Titus Flavius Pantainos Trajan, this structure is located at the edge of the Panathenaic Way, near the Acropolis, in order to please the Emperor. Built on uneven ground, it consists of a series of rooms around a rectangular courtyard.

Later, the Romans continued beautifying the agora with temples and monuments such as the Temple of Ares, a circular Monopteros and a house of a semicircular fountain called Nympahion in the southeastern corner of the agora.

In 267 the Heruli looted and destroyed Athens Agora. Although some buildings were rebuilt, Athens suffered new barbarian attacks at the end of the sixth century, and after that the area of the Agora was abandoned.

BYZANTINE PERIOD
In the tenth century the church of the Holy Apostles was erected, which is very well preserved despite centuries, and we will review in the next post.

Until then...

THE ROMAN FORUM, ARCHITECTURE

2011-11-30T16:05:00.000+09:00

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Photo courtesy of dfworks

ESPAÑOL

As a symbol of imperial majesty and monumentality, the Roman Forums were characterized by their imposing temples and secular buildings, as well as by the ornamentation of the space with statues and allegorical motifs.

Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius

The previous post reviewed the historical development and urban layout of the forums in Rome, and this post will explore some of its most conspicuous monuments.

CURIA JULIA

"Curia" comes from"co-viri" which means "association of men" and "Senate" comes from "senex," which means "old man". The curia was originally the place where the elders of the tribes near Rome met . During the Republic, the primitive Hostilia Curia, a modest building where the Senate sat in simple wooden benches, was burned down by a mob in 52 BC.

The Curia Julia was started by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and completed by his adopted son Augustus in 29 BC.

The brick building was originally covered by marble in its lower half and stucco imitating marble at the top, in the same style as the Baths of Caracalla. It features a rectangular layout of 25.2 x 17.6 m and 15.4 m high and is slightly rotated with respect to the old Curia Hostilia, defining more clearly the spatial boundary of the forum.

In front of the facade, covering elongated stairs, was a portico of Ionic columns called Chalcidium, which was dedicated to the goddess Minerva. He also had two huge bronze doors, which were moved to the church of San Giovanni in Laterano by Borromini, during the Baroque era.

The interior is a single room that hosted up to 300 senators. On the back was the podium, a seat for the President of the Senate.

Photo by Ignacio A.

On the side walls were three niches, the central one with a semicircular pediment and the other with a triangular one.

Roof of the Curia. Photo courtesy of jere7my

The Curia we see today was restored by Diocletian in 283 AD, after being partially destroyed by fire. At this time corresponds the current decoration visible on the mosaic floor .

Photo gmcdowel

In the early seventh century it was transformed into the Church of St. Hadrian.

Photo courtesy of antmoose

In the 1930s Mussolini ordered the demolition of the church and restored the building closely to its original status.

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina

It is the best preserved building in the Roman Forum. It is located east of the Basilica Emilia, facing the Via Sacra. It was built by Antoninus Pius when his wife Faustina died in 141 AD.
The building rests on a podium and consists of a cella originally clad in marble, a pronaos of six Corinthian columns with capitals carved in white marble, and a height of 17 m. The frieze is decorated with griffins. The building rests on a stylobate.

Notable for the simplicity and purity of its style, which is Corinthian, hexastyle (6 columns) and prostyle (with freestanding columns in front of the buiding).

In the columns some marks can be seen, correspondent to the incisions that were made in the Middle Ages, in order to tear them down with ropes.

In the seventeenth century the temple was transformed into the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.

BASILICA JULIA

This long building (109 x 48 m) was started by Julius Caesar in 54 BC, completed by Augustus in 12 BC and rebuilt by Diocletian in 283 AD. The basilica is one of the most important types of Roman architecture and was subsequently adopted in the early churches of Christianity.

The basilica rested on a podium and was surrounded by a colonnade of two levels. Its main hall, (82 x 18 m) was 3 storiess high and could be divided into four parts by removable wooden structures. It also had two smaller naves on the sides. Among its functions, it housed civil courts and shops.

BASILICA EMILIA

Parallel to the Basilica Julia, this trapezoidal building (70 x 30 m) consisted of three naves, with the central one 12 m wide. It was surrounded by an arcade of 16 arches in each of its two levels.

It was built in 179 BC by Aemilius Lepidus and expanded through the centuries. The building came to replace the old tabernae of the Roman forum, therefore new shops called novae tabernae were included .

Temple of Saturn

Here we are, at the foot of what remains of the temple of Saturn, 8 columns of its portico. The scale is, indeed, monumental, and one can not help feeling moved to imagine the impression that this structure would had produce in ordinary Roman citizens when it was still complete.

This temple is the oldest structure in the area, dating from 501 to 498 BC and it housed the Roman state treasury. It was an Ionic temple, in whose interior the statue of Saturn, the god of agriculture, was carefully housed .

Photo courtesy of San Juan Ramon .

Arch of Septimius Severus

The Arch of Septimius Severus was erected in 203 by his sons Caracalla and Geta to celebrate the triumphs of the emperor. It is a marble gateway, richly decorated in bas-reliefs, with a main central arch and two smaller side arches (another reference to the Emperor and his sons). There are four protruding columns, and on top of the arch was originally a bronze sculpture of a chariot of the Emperor Septimius with his two sons. A curious detail is that, after the bloody Caracalla killed his brother Geta in front of his mother, he had to remove his name from all monuments in the empire.

The third and final part of this series on the forums will focus on the interesting market of Trajan, that I will review in a future post. Until then.

SEE ALSO
- ROMAN ARCHITECTURE